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Encyclopedia of Complexity and Systems Science pp 5859–5889Cite as

Nanocomputers

  • Reference work entry

Definition of theSubject

Nanocomputers are (not-yet‐realized) computers thatwill be based on technology employing devices and wires withfeature sizes in the order of a few nanometers(10−9 m). If theincrease in integration density of microelectronics according toMoore's law  [143] continues at the samepace as it has for almost 40 years, such computers will bearound in a few decades. Computational power and speed ofnanocomputers will likely dwarf those of most contemporarycomputers if trends from the past continue. It is anticipatedthat silicon‐based CMOS technology can be extended to upto the year 2015; beyond that, major scientific andtechnological breakthroughs will be required, according to theInternational Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors(ITRS) [94]. Many of thesebreakthroughs will take place on the physical level, via thedevelopment of new devices, but progress on an architectural andalgorithmic level will also be indispensable. Among the issuesthat need to be addressed in...

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Abbreviations

Adiabatic switching:

Switching with asymptotically zero speed with the aim of reducing power consumption in a circuit.

Asynchronous circuit:

Circuit that is designed to work in the absence of a clock.

Babbage engine:

Mechanical calculator built by Charles Babbage in the early 19th century.

Bottom-up fabrication:

Fabrication method employing the natural ability of physical structures (including atoms and molecules) to organize themselves into desired structures.

Brownian motion:

Random movement of micrometer‐sized particles due to collisions with molecules. The term is also used to indicate random movement of smaller‐sized particles, or the mathematical model of such movements.

Carbon nanotube:

Nanometer‐scale tube consisting of a graphite sheet rolled up into a seamless cylinder. Carbon nanotubes intended for nanoelectronic applications are mainly single‐walled.

Cellular automaton:

Discrete regular array of cells, each of which is in one of a finite number of states. A cell is updated in discrete time steps according to a transition rule that takes the states of the cell and its direct neighbors and determines the next state of the cell. If all cells are updated at the same time, the model is called synchronous, otherwise asynchronous.

Complementary metal-oxide‐semiconductor (CMOS):

Currently dominant technology used to implement digital logic circuits as well as a wide variety of analog circuits such as image sensors and data convertors.

Computational universality:

Ability of a computing system to compute every function in a certain class of systems.

Computer architecture:

Functional and structural design and operational specification of a computer system.

Construction universality:

Ability of a logic system to construct every arbitrary logic structure in a certain class of systems.

Crossbar array:

Array consisting of two layers of wires, whereby wires within one layer are parallel to each other but perpendicular to the wires in the other layer. The wires are connected to each other at their crosspoints through devices.

Coulomb blockade:

Increased resistance at certain voltages to the flow of electrons in a tunnel‐junction, which is a thin insulating barrier between two conducting electrodes.

Defect‐tolerant:

Ability of a system to remain relatively unaffected by the occurrence of permanent defects.

Delay‐insensitive circuit:

Asynchronous circuit in which the outcomes of operations are unaffected by delays in wires and functional elements.

Device:

Functional element in a circuit that takes input signals and produces output signals. A transistor is a well-known example of a device.

Dielectric material:

Medium that is a poor conductor of electricity, but an effective supporter of electric fields. A dielectric with a high dielectric constant κ is the preferred material used as a gate‐dielectric in a transistor, since it allows for a thicker insulating layer between gate and channel given a certain gate capacitance. A low-κ dielectric is the preferred material used for insulating layers between wires, since it allows for smaller wire pitches.

Entropy:

Measure of uncertainty associated with a certain information‐theoretic or physical variable.

Error correcting code (ECC):

Encoding that adds redundancy to information to increase the ability to correct or detect errors caused by noise or other impairments.

Fault‐tolerant:

Ability of a system to remain relatively unaffected by the occurrence of errors.

Field‐effect transistor (FET):

Transistor in which the conductivity of the channel depends on the electric field controlled by the transistor's gate.

Fine‐grained parallelism:

Scheme for the subdivision of tasks in a large number of small subtasks that can be simultaneously executed by a large number of simple information processing elements.

Finite automaton:

Logical scheme consisting of a finite number of states, including a start state and an accept state, as well as a specification of state changes under the influence of inputs.

Field‐programmable gate array (FPGA):

Type of chip containing logic components and programmable wires that can be programmed to perform a wide variety of combinational logic functions.

Gate:

A logic gate is a digital device that carries out a Boolean bit‐operation, such as the AND, OR, NOT, etc. A transistor gate is the part of the transistor that controls the conductivity of the channel between the transistor's source and drain.

Hamiltonian:

Property corresponding to the total energy of a system's state that is determined by some sequence of physical operations. A Hamiltonian is mathematically expressed by a unitarian operator H.

Heisenberg uncertainty principle:

Relationship in quantum mechanics, giving a lower bound on the product of the uncertainties of two physical observables. These two observables may be position and momentum, or, alternatively, energy and time.

Lithography:

Microfabrication process in which a pattern is transferred to a photosensitive material to selectively remove parts of a thin substrate.

Majority gate:

A logic gate in which the value of the output bit is set to the logic value occurring in the majority of the input bits. A majority gate usually has an odd number of input bits.

Markov chain:

Discrete‐time stochastic process of which the next state solely depends on the present state and not directly on previous states. In other words, the process is memoryless.

Molecular electronics:

Electronics in which the components (wires and devices) are realized in terms of molecules. These molecules are usually organic.

Moore's law:

Trend along which integration density of microelectronics has developed since the 1960's, the time Gordon E. Moore first observed this trend. Integration density according to this trend increases exponentially, doubling approximately every two years.

MOSFETS:

FETs implemented by CMOS technology.

Neural network:

Mathematical model based on the biological nervous system, consisting of neurons that receive (usually) analog values from each other through weighted interconnections. Learning in a neural network takes place through updating the weights based on the values of the neurons and the values of the input signals.

Neuron:

Biological neuron is a cell in the nervous system that processes and transmits information. The central part of a neuron is its soma (cell body), and it has an extension called axon to transmit information to other neurons via axon terminals called synapses. This information is received by a neuron through its dendrites. A neuron in an artificial neural network is modeled after a biological neuron. It receives inputs via weighted interconnections, which model the strengths of synapses.

NP‐complete:

Class of decision problems for which no polynomial‐time (expressed in terms of the input size) algorithms are known. Any member of the wider class of NP (Non‐deterministic Polynomial time) problems can be transformed in an NP‐complete problem, in which the time overhead of the translation is at most a polynomial factor.

Parallel:

A computation is parallel if it is divided in smaller computations that can be executed simultaneously.

Perceptron:

A type of neural network model invented in 1957 by Frank Rosenblatt that is used for classification. Though originally this model consisted only of a layer of input neurons and a layer of output neurons, modern uses of the term includes the possible presence of one or more hidden layers of neurons. The perceptron is a feedforward neural network, which means that information flows in one direction, from the input to the output, so their are no backward connections between neurons.

Pitch:

Term used in integrated circuits to denote distance between elements, such as between cells in RAM memory or between the centers of two wires. Commonly used is the term half-pitch, indicating half this distance.

Processor:

The computing part of a computer also called Central Processing Unit (CPU).

Quantum dot cellular automaton:

Cellular automaton in which cells based on quantum dots containing electrons interact with each other through electrostatic forces.

Ratchet:

Device that allows a process (such as the movement of particles) to take place in only one direction.

Repeater:

Logic device placed on a wire to reproduce signals input to it. Usually implemented in terms of NOT-gates, repeaters speed up the propagation of signals along wires in highly integrated microelectronics.

Resonant clock:

Timing mechanism on synchronous chips that employs the resonance of oscillators to achieve sharply reduced power consumption and increased preciseness in timing.

Resonant tunneling device:

Device using quantum effects to allow very efficient transmission of electrons through a double barrier tunneling structure.

Reversible computation:

Computation of a function that is one-to-one.

Scanning tunneling microscope (STM):

Type of electron microscope to view surfaces at the atomic level with resolutions of up to 0.1 nm lateral and 0.01 nm in depth. The STM employs a tip from which electrons tunnel to the surface, whereby the tunnel current depends on the distance between the tip and the surface as an exponential function. The STM can also be used to manipulate individual atoms and molecules.

Single electron tunneling device:

Device based on the tunneling of individual electrons through one or more tunneling barriers, which are thin insulating layers between electrodes.

Spintronic device:

Device based on the magnetic spin states of electrons.

Superposition of states:

Linear combination of states in a quantum system describing a situation in which a physical observable possesses two or more values simultaneously.

Synapse:

Receptor on a neuron's axon that connects to a dendrite of a neuron to transmit information.

Top‐down fabrication:

Fabrication method in which structures are formed under the control of a master plan. Optical lithography is the usual top-down method for fabricating microelectronic chips.

Tunneling:

Quantum mechanical phenomenon in which a particle passes through an energy barrier that would, given the particle's kinetic energy, be too high for it to pass by classical physical laws.

Tunneling phase logic:

Logic that uses the phases of waves to conduct logic operations.

Turing machine:

Abstract logic model consisting of a tape, a reading and writing head, and a finite automaton to control the head. This simple machine model is used to study computation and the relations between computational models.

Very large scale integration (VLSI):

Microelectronics technology with millions of devices on a chip.

Voltage encoding:

Encoding of the value of a signal by the level of a voltage. This is the most commonly used method to encode signals in electronics. Opposite of charge encoding, in which the value of a signal is determined by the presence of a small number of elementary electrical charges.

von Neumann neighborhood:

Set of cells in a cellular automaton that neighbors orthogonally to a cell. The von Neumann neighborhood of a cell in a 2‑dimensional cellular automaton consists of the cell's northern, eastern, southern, and western neighboring cells. Often the cell itself is also included in the definition of neighborhood.

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  1. National Institute of Information and Communications Technology, Kobe, Japan

    Ferdinand Peper

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Peper, F. (2009). Nanocomputers. In: Meyers, R. (eds) Encyclopedia of Complexity and Systems Science. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-30440-3_347

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