Abstract
Automated evaluation of vertebral fracture status on computed tomography (CT) scans acquired for various purposes (opportunistic CT) may substantially enhance vertebral fracture detection rate. Convolutional neural networks (CNNs) have shown promising performance in numerous tasks but their black box nature may hinder acceptance by physicians. We aim (a) to evaluate CNN architectures for osteoporotic fracture discrimination as part of a pipeline localizing and classifying vertebrae in CT images and (b) to evaluate the benefit of using attribution maps to explain a network’s decision. Training different model architectures on 3D patches containing vertebrae, we show that CNNs permit highly accurate discrimination of the fracture status of individual vertebrae. Explanations were computed using selected attribution methods: Gradient, Gradient * Input, Guided BackProp, and SmoothGrad algorithms. Quantitative and visual tests were conducted to evaluate the meaningfulness of the explanations (sanity checks). The explanations were found to depend on the model architecture, the realization of the parameters, and the precise position of the target object of interest.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
We also conducted experiments with a 3D ResNet18 variant [7] that are out of scope for this publication but are in line with the presented results.
- 2.
Other correlation measures (Pearson and Spearman coefficients) lead to similar conclusions.
References
SpineAnalyzer. Optasia Medical Ltd., Cheadle Hulme, United Kingdom (2013)
Adebayo, J., Gilmer, J., Muelly, M., Goodfellow, I., Hardt, M., Kim, B.: Sanity checks for saliency maps. In: Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, Montréal, Canada, pp. 9525–9536. Curran Associates Inc. (2018)
Ancona, M., Ceolini, E., Öztireli, C., Gross, M.: Gradient-based attribution methods. In: Samek, W., Montavon, G., Vedaldi, A., Hansen, L.K., Müller, K.-R. (eds.) Explainable AI: Interpreting, Explaining and Visualizing Deep Learning. LNCS (LNAI), vol. 11700, pp. 169–191. Springer, Cham (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28954-6_9
Erhan, D., Bengio, Y., Courville, A., Vincent, P.: Visualizing higher - layer features of a deep network. Technical report, Univeristé de Montréal (2009)
Genant, H.K., Wu, C.Y., van Kuijk, C., Nevitt, M.C.: Vertebral fracture assessment using a semiquantitative technique. J. Bone Miner. Res. 8(9), 1137–1148 (1993)
Glüer, C.C., et al.: New horizons for the in vivo assessment of major aspects of bone quality microstructure and material properties assessed by Quantitative Computed Tomography and Quantitative Ultrasound methods developed by the BioAsset consortium. Osteologie 22, 223–233 (2013)
Haarburger, C., et al.: Multi scale curriculum CNN for context-aware breast MRI malignancy classification. In: Shen, D., et al. (eds.) MICCAI 2019. LNCS, vol. 11767, pp. 495–503. Springer, Cham (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-32251-9_54
Husseini, M., Sekuboyina, A., Bayat, A., Menze, B.H., Loeffler, M., Kirschke, J.S.: Conditioned variational auto-encoder for detecting osteoporotic vertebral fractures. In: Cai, Y., Wang, L., Audette, M., Zheng, G., Li, S. (eds.) CSI 2019. LNCS, vol. 11963, pp. 29–38. Springer, Cham (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-39752-4_3
Isensee, F., Kickingereder, P., Wick, W., Bendszus, M., Maier-Hein, K.H.: Brain tumor segmentation and radiomics survival prediction: contribution to the BRATS 2017 challenge. In: Crimi, A., Bakas, S., Kuijf, H., Menze, B., Reyes, M. (eds.) BrainLes 2017. LNCS, vol. 10670, pp. 287–297. Springer, Cham (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75238-9_25
Kingma, D.P., Ba, J.L.: Adam: a method for stochastic optimization. In: 3rd International Conference on Learning Representations, San Diego, May 2015
Mader, A.O., Lorenz, C., von Berg, J., Meyer, C.: Automatically localizing a large set of spatially correlated key points: a case study in spine imaging. In: Shen, D., et al. (eds.) MICCAI 2019. LNCS, vol. 11769, pp. 384–392. Springer, Cham (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-32226-7_43
Nicolaes, J., et al.: Detection of vertebral fractures in CT using 3D convolutional neural networks. In: Cai, Y., Wang, L., Audette, M., Zheng, G., Li, S. (eds.) CSI 2019. LNCS, vol. 11963, pp. 3–14. Springer, Cham (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-39752-4_1
Izmailov, P., Podoprikhin, D., Garipov, T., Vetrov, D., Wilson, A.G.: Averaging weights leads to wider optima and better generalization. In: Uncertain Artificial Intelligence, Monterey, California, pp. 876–885. AUAI Press, Corvallis, March 2018
Shrikumar, A., Greenside, P., Shcherbina, A., Kundaje, A.: Not Just a Black Box: Learning Important Features Through Propagating Activation Differences (2016)
Smilkov, D., Thorat, N., Kim, B., Viégas, F., Wattenberg, M.: SmoothGrad: removing noise by adding noise (2017). arXiv:Learning
Springenberg, J., Dosovitskiy, A., Brox, T., Riedmiller, M.: Striving for simplicity: the all convolutional net. In: International Conference on Learning Representations (2015)
Tomita, N., Cheung, Y.Y., Hassanpour, S.: Deep neural networks for automatic detection of osteoporotic vertebral fractures on CT scans. Comput. Biol. Med. 98, 8–15 (2018)
Young, K., Booth, G., Simpson, B., Dutton, R., Shrapnel, S.: Deep neural network or dermatologist? In: Suzuki, K., et al. (eds.) ML-CDS/IMIMIC -2019. LNCS, vol. 11797, pp. 48–55. Springer, Cham (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-33850-3_6
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this paper
Cite this paper
Yilmaz, E.B., Mader, A.O., Fricke, T., Peña, J., Glüer, CC., Meyer, C. (2020). Assessing Attribution Maps for Explaining CNN-Based Vertebral Fracture Classifiers. In: Cardoso, J., et al. Interpretable and Annotation-Efficient Learning for Medical Image Computing. IMIMIC MIL3ID LABELS 2020 2020 2020. Lecture Notes in Computer Science(), vol 12446. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-61166-8_1
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-61166-8_1
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-61165-1
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-61166-8
eBook Packages: Computer ScienceComputer Science (R0)