Abstract
In order for a mobile robot to be able to effectively operate in complex, dynamic environments it must be capable of understanding both where and what the objects around them are. In this paper we introduce the semantic probability hypothesis density (SPHD) filter, which allows robots to simultaneously track multiple classes of targets despite measurement uncertainty, including false positive detections, false negative detections, measurement noise, and target misclassification. The SPHD filter is capable of incorporating a different motion model for each type of target and of functioning in situations where the number of targets is unknown and time-varying. We demonstrate the efficacy of the SPHD filter via simulations with multiple target types containing both static and dynamic targets. We show that the SPHD filter performs better than a collection of PHD filters running in parallel, one for each target class.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Atanasov, N., Zhu, M., Daniilidis, K., Pappas, G.J.: Semantic localization via the matrix permanent. In: Robotics: Science and Systems, vol. 2 (2014)
Bahlmann, C., Zhu, Y., Comaniciu, D., Köhler, T., Pellkofer, M.: Method for combining boosted classifiers for efficient multi-class object detection. US Patent 7,769,228 (2010)
Bao, S.Y., Savarese, S.: Semantic structure from motion. In: CVPR 2011, pp. 2025–2032. IEEE (2011)
Blackman, S.S.: Multiple hypothesis tracking for multiple target tracking. IEEE Aerosp. Electron. Syst. Mag 19(1), 5–18 (2004)
Bowman, S.L., Atanasov, N., Daniilidis, K., Pappas, G.J.: Probabilistic data association for semantic slam. In: 2017 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA), pp. 1722–1729. IEEE (2017)
Daley, D.J., Vere-Jones, D.: An Introduction to the Theory of Point Processes: Volume I: Elementary Theory and Methods. Springer, New York (2003)
Dames, P., Kumar, V.: Autonomous localization of an unknown number of targets without data association using teams of mobile sensors. IEEE Trans. Autom. Sci. Eng. 12(3), 850–864 (2015)
Dames, P., Kumar, V.: Experimental characterization of a bearing-only sensor for use with the PHD filter. arXiv preprint arXiv:1502.04661 (2015)
Dames, P., Tokekar, P., Kumar, V.: Detecting, localizing, and tracking an unknown number of moving targets using a team of mobile robots. Int. J. Robot. Res. 36(13–14), 1540–1553 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1177/0278364917709507
Dames, P.M.: Distributed multi-target search and tracking using the PHD filter. Autonom. Robot. (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10514-019-09840-9
Fortmann, T., Bar-Shalom, Y., Scheffe, M.: Sonar tracking of multiple targets using joint probabilistic data association. IEEE J. Oceanic Eng. 8(3), 173–184 (1983)
Gálvez-López, D., Salas, M., Tardós, J.D., Montiel, J.: Real-time monocular object SLAM. Robot. Autonom. Syst. 75, 435–449 (2016)
Kostavelis, I., Gasteratos, A.: Semantic mapping for mobile robotics tasks: a survey. Robot. Autonom. Syst. 66, 86–103 (2015)
Kuhn, H.W.: The Hungarian method for the assignment problem. Naval Res. Logistic. Q. 2(1–2), 83–97 (1955)
Lee, C.S., Clark, D.E., Salvi, J.: SLAM with dynamic targets via single-cluster PHD filtering. IEEE J. Sel. Topics Sig. Process. 7(3), 543–552 (2013)
Lin, L., Bar-Shalom, Y., Kirubarajan, T.: Track labeling and PHD filter for multitarget tracking. IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst. 42(3), 778–795 (2006)
Mahler, R.: Multitarget Bayes filtering via first-order multitarget moments. IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst. 39(4), 1152–1178 (2003)
Mahler, R.: Statistical Multisource-multitarget Information Fusion, vol. 685. Artech House, Boston (2007)
Moratuwage, D., Wang, D., Rao, A., Senarathne, N., Wang, H.: RFS collaborative multivehicle SLAM: SLAM in dynamic high-clutter environments. IEEE Robot. Autom. Mag. 21(2), 53–59 (2014)
Mullane, J., Vo, B.N., Adams, M.D., Vo, B.T.: A random-finite-set approach to Bayesian SLAM. IEEE Trans. Robot. 27(2), 268–282 (2011)
Munkres, J.: Algorithms for the assignment and transportation problems. J. Soc. Ind. Appl. Math. 5(1), 32–38 (1957)
Nüchter, A., Hertzberg, J.: Towards semantic maps for mobile robots. Robot. Autonom. Syst. 56(11), 915–926 (2008)
Pronobis, A., Jensfelt, P.: Large-scale semantic mapping and reasoning with heterogeneous modalities. In: 2012 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, pp. 3515–3522. IEEE (2012)
Redmon, J., Farhadi, A.: Yolov3: an incremental improvement. arXiv preprint arXiv:1804.02767 (2018)
Salas-Moreno, R.F., Newcombe, R.A., Strasdat, H., Kelly, P.H., Davison, A.J.: SLAM++: simultaneous localisation and mapping at the level of objects. In: Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, pp. 1352–1359 (2013)
Schuhmacher, D., Vo, B.T., Vo, B.N.: A consistent metric for performance evaluation of multi-object filters. IEEE Trans. Sig. Process. 56(8), 3447–3457 (2008)
Stone, L.D., Streit, R.L., Corwin, T.L., Bell, K.L.: Bayesian Multiple Target Tracking. Artech House, Boston (2013)
Thrun, S.: Simultaneous localization and mapping. In: Jefferies, M.E., Yeap, W.K. (eds.) Robotics and Cognitive Approaches to Spatial Mapping. STAR, vol. 38, pp. 13–41. Springer, Heidelberg (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-75388-9_3
Vo, B.N., Singh, S., Doucet, A., et al.: Sequential Monte Carlo implementation of the PHD filter for multi-target tracking. In: Proceedings of International Conference on Information Fusion, pp. 792–799 (2003)
Vo, B.N., Vo, B.T., Phung, D.: Labeled random finite sets and the Bayes multi-target tracking filter. IEEE Trans. Sig. Process. 62(24), 6554–6567 (2014)
Vo, B.T., Vo, B.N.: Labeled random finite sets and multi-object conjugate priors. IEEE Trans. Sig. Process. 61(13), 3460–3475 (2013)
Zender, H., Mozos, O.M., Jensfelt, P., Kruijff, G.J., Burgard, W.: Conceptual spatial representations for indoor mobile robots. Robot. Autonom. Syst. 56(6), 493–502 (2008)
Acknowledgements
This work was funded by NSF grant IIS-1830419 and the Amazon Research Awards program. We would like to thank Zhijia Chen from Temple University for assistance with the data processing work.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
1 Electronic supplementary material
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2022 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this paper
Cite this paper
Chen, J., Dames, P. (2022). Multi-class Target Tracking Using the Semantic PHD Filter. In: Asfour, T., Yoshida, E., Park, J., Christensen, H., Khatib, O. (eds) Robotics Research. ISRR 2019. Springer Proceedings in Advanced Robotics, vol 20. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-95459-8_32
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-95459-8_32
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-95458-1
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-95459-8
eBook Packages: Intelligent Technologies and RoboticsIntelligent Technologies and Robotics (R0)