1 Introduction

A growing amount of technology aimed at addressing users’ experiential needs is continuously introduced into our lives. The modern car is one space that reflects this technological evolution. Modern vehicles can facilitate a variety of activities supported by the ever more connected and interactive human machine interface (HMI) of the cars. The vehicle industry has a comprehensive history of researching safety, ergonomics, and to an extent usability issues in vehicles. However, due to the connected and interactive environment, User Experience (UX) has become a topic of growing interest for researchers and car manufacturers [1]. In contrast to safety, vehicle makers do not yet have strong foundations for designing systems with UX in focus [2]. These parameters make the car context an interesting and unique space for studying user experiences in.

In addition to usability and task performance, UX includes non-utilitarian dimensions such as affect, value, meaning etc. [3]. Furthermore, the subjective experience of a product is a dynamic consequence of the user’s internal state (e.g. expectations, needs, motivation, mood), the characteristics of the product (e.g. complexity, novelty, functionality, aesthetics) and the context (e.g. the environment) of the interaction [3]. Due to the fact that experience is subjective and highly personal there is an emergent need for holistic work of in-vehicle experience from a user’s perspective. In turn, this understanding will provide knowledge of how to shape technological interactions with the user’s needs in mind. Two prominent issues stand out; firstly the necessity to understand the types of experience that users find truly desirable, and secondly to identify ways that this knowledge of desirable experiences can contribute to the design process of interactions in different contexts.

In this study we have chosen to focus on the role of the car’s HMI in shaping the user’s experience in order to explore the types of experiences these new systems can enable. The car cockpit is a place where many of us spend a substantial amount of time during daily commutes and thus the car’s HMI is a significant venue for designing for positive every day experiences. The unique vehicle context of use adds additional challenges for in-vehicle HMI developers and researchers that must balance the importance of factors such as safety, usability and pleasure of an HMI. The extensive integration of the phone into the interface of modern cars gives a significant place to the integrated functionality of the phone in the research and study design.

The goal of this paper is to identify experiences that users of modern technology enjoy today by using the car context as a use case. An understanding of these experiences can assist designers by providing knowledge of the components that facilitate positive user experiences. In turn, design teams can use this knowledge to empathize with users and hereby create solutions that better support the user’s experience.

2 Related Work

User experience is developing into an established discipline, with a growing number of empirical evidence to support its theoretical foundations [4]. Different frameworks have attempted to describe the elusive nature of UX in more detail (for examples see [5]), but do not address sufficiently how one should study user experience [6]. Most researchers agree that UX is subjective, dynamic and contextual [3]. One of the principal approaches to researching user experience is the holistic approach [7], which posits that the richness of human experience cannot be reduced to a set of variables but instead should be studied as a whole and in its context. Building on the holistic standpoint, McCarthy and Wright analyze experience with technology, and describe experience as a situated, temporal phenomenon that should be studied in its entirety [7].

As experience is rich, personal and subjective in nature [8], UX research requires approaches that are able to capture the fine nuances that make experience significant for each user. In order to understand user experience, researchers must capture experiences in the context they emerge, applying an objective and open perspective to the user’s interaction [8]. Forlizzi and Ford turn to user narratives as a way to capture experiences from a user perspective [9]. This approach, which is inspired by ethnographic methodology, can be found in a number of studies of user experience, but does not fully address experiences that may not be voluntarily expressed and narrated by the user.

A growing number of methods have been developed for use in empirical studies of user experience. These studies vary widely in approach and application, stretching from purely quantitative studies to solely qualitative ones, depending on the focus of the study (for example summative or formative evaluations) and the researcher’s underlying framework for understanding UX. Experience over time has also been a growing focus of experience studies acknowledging the highly dynamic qualities of experience [10]. Finally, there are some studies that make an effort towards capturing the user’s experience in context from a holistic standpoint, many of which focus on mobile phones [11].

2.1 Automotive UX Research

UX research in the in-vehicle domain is sparse at best, especially when it comes to applied, holistic user research. One relevant example from the field of sociology is work by Lyons and Urry who presented travelling time not only as a burden, but also as valuable time for the traveler [12]. Tscheligi et al. call for a more thorough investigation of the holistic experiences in cars further grounded in the driving context [13], as very little research in the area has taken place.

Most published studies are limited to a single interactive system: for example, Knobel et al. used an interview approach focused explicitly on capturing relatedness experiences in order to design for such an experience in the car [14]. Albeit useful, this approach focuses on experiences with a single system in the car (cruise control and navigation), or with a specific experience in mind (relatedness) and do not expand into the complexity of positive experiences to be had in modern cars. A wider approach towards in-vehicle experiences can be found in Eckholdt et al. [15], although the work was not founded on empirical user studies. Finally, Gkouskos et al. used a mixed methods approach in order to explore user experience in vehicles [16] however without the rich level of detail that user narratives can produce. The lack of studies on holistic automotive user experiences highlight the need of more research in the area in order to gain a fuller understanding of these experiences.

3 Methodology

The methodology of the present study was chosen in order to provide both holistic and detailed insights of in-vehicle user experiences, as well as to investigate the phone’s contribution to these experiences, since the use of the phone in the car has been steadily increasing [17].

A research approach that combined contextual interviews [18], reflexive photography [19], and a simplified version of the UX curve [20] was applied for gaining an informed understanding of user experiences in vehicles. This mixed-method approach was shaped in order to access the subjective experiences of the participants in the study through multiple entry points, and to stimulate a deeper conversation around lived experiences in cars. Furthermore, the study encompassed three study topics; the car as a whole, the car’s HMI and the phone connected to the car.

3.1 Methods

Reflexive photography, or photography conducted by the interviewee, has been used in previous research [19]. In this study, photography was used as a conversation stimulus and for adding more nuances to the interview. Specifically, participants were asked to photograph what they perceived as significant for them about their car, prior to the interview. The photographs were then used to draw attention to areas that the participants found significant enough to photograph.

The core of the study was the contextual, semi-structured interview [18] with the participants. Being in the use context with the user was an important aspect of the interview, as topics could be followed up more thoroughly, avoiding misconceptions and spurring conversation. A deepened understanding of the interaction in the vehicle was achieved by questions triggered by the surrounding context. Examples of questions from the interviews are the participants’ choice to have an add-on GPS system in their car instead of an integrated one, or asking participants to display how they typically use the in-vehicle systems during their daily commute.

The UX curve is a method used for reconstructing experiences over time [20]. Typically, during the construction of a UX curve, the participant draws by using pen and paper a curve to describe how the experience about a product has changed over time. The curve drawing area consists of a vertical timeline and a horizontal line that divides positive and negative experiences. In this study, the UX curve method was employed for two reasons: firstly, for gaining insights of experience as it changed over time and secondly, as a conversation mediator. In other studies, different curves are used for several, pre-selected areas of focus. In this study, only the curve for overall experience was used in order to keep an open mind of what the user experience might include or exclude in the vehicle context.

3.2 Participants

Sixteen car users with modern, high-tech vehicles participated in the study. The selection criteria were that participants should have a car with an advanced in-vehicle HMI, no older than three years and not owned by them for less than three months.

These requirements were placed to ensure participants who could relate to the new technology that shapes today’s user experiences of new premium vehicles. The participants also had to have been active in the purchase (i.e. not a car they were using without having participated in the selection process of model and in-vehicle systems). Seven women and nine men participated, aged between 29 to 66 years, with a mean of 48 years. The cars that the participants owned came from a variety of manufacturers (BMW, Volvo, Audi, Mercedes, and Volkswagen). The most common family situation was that of a family with children.

3.3 Procedure

During the booking of each interview, each participant was asked to take photos of ‘things that are significant regarding the car’. In the beginning of each interview, participants were given an introduction to the interview and were asked general questions regarding work, hobbies, and their attitude towards and experience with technology. As a next step the participants discussed their experiences with their smartphone or car. Each participant was randomly assigned either with the phone part first, followed by the car and then the car HMI part, or with the car first, followed by the phone and then the car HMI part. The car and phone parts of the interview were conducted in neutral spaces, e.g. the participants’ home or office, while the HMI segment of the interviews was conducted inside the participant’s vehicle.

The interviews included topics regarding initial expectations from the product, first impressions, opinion of the product today, typical daily use, positive and negative experiences, and things to look for when purchasing an upgrade to the current product. Questions for each of the phone, car, and HMI segments of the interview were posed in a chronological order with the support of the UX curve. The participants’ photos were used to stimulate further discussion. As an added memory aid, participants were encouraged to show or mimic the activities they were talking about (i.e. dialing phone number from the steering wheel, searching for information, or using a GPS systems).

3.4 Analysis

The narratives were analyzed using conventional content analysis, a method for characterizing and comparing content in text [21]. The coding was conducted by the first and second authors together, to ensure that consensus was reached. The data that resulted from the coding was then compiled into different experience themes. The experience themes are summaries of narratives that represent the whole of the experience as told by the participants. As the UX curve and the photos highlighted experiences that were significant for the participants, data connected to the photos and UX curves were incorporated into the analysis and contributed to the categories and UX themes.

4 Findings

To contribute to the knowledge of valuable in-vehicle user experiences, we present five major experience themes extracted from the semi-structured interviews, the photographs and the UX curves of the sixteen study participants. The themes describe types of everyday experiences the participants had in their cars.

4.1 The Car as a Space for Transition

The car as a transitional space is a theme that was apparent in eight of the sixteen participants’ narratives. Time spent in the car was used as an opportunity to prepare for the next stage in their lives: “Driving to and from work is the time for me to think about what I’m supposed to do during the day, to go from home mode to work mode, and then the same going back. I try to have at least half the drive without any thoughts of work, so that when I’m home, I’m home.” (P13). Commuting time was thus an important part of the everyday life puzzle of activities, providing a window for reflection, planning and distancing.

The use of the car as a transitional space was accomplished for instance by preparing for work through taking work related calls during the drive to work, and by catching up on emails for example during red lights: “… you spend some time working when you’re driving, doing easy things, like preparing for meetings if you didn’t have time to do it before you left…” (P5). The car cockpit functioned as an extension of the workspace where the participants undertook the simple work tasks that were perceived as safe enough perform while driving. A traffic jam was at times seen as an opportunity to prepare for the day: “The car is like your office and you can use the time (in the traffic jam to work) to learn something new, send emails etc.” (P6).

Similarly to the need for preparing for work, participants also wanted relaxation time to prepare for their home life as mentioned by one participant (P4), who played relaxing music to de-stress from a tough work day. The ability to connect a smartphone or mp3 player to the vehicle’s audio system was a major enabler of this transition to and from work. When the connection to the phone or media was not working up to expectations, the poor integration was a major source of distress in the vehicle. In some cases workarounds were found for simplifying the in-car activities. For example, one participant (P6) pre-dialed a list of people he wanted to contact while driving home from work, so that he would be able to use the recent calls list and thus have a more easily managed phone list in the infotainment system during the drive home. The theme of connected phones and media was a commonly photographed topic, depicted by eight of the participants. One participant (P8) photographed for example her USB connection because it gave her access to what she needed to make her daily travel to and from work enjoyable and efficient.

The experience of the car as a transitional space remained stable over time, with the exceptions of the participants who did not have the possibility to connect the car to their phone before. They saw this connection of car and phone as a major change in their everyday routines, resulting in spending more of their time connected to for example music services; “It is almost easier to say when I do not use Spotify. When I get in the car, when I wake up, I connect to the Apple TV, when I leave the house it automatically connects to the car and the same music which I had (in the house) is now in the car. Then I drop my kids off … when I arrive to the office I put my headphones on and continue.” (P2). This was a typical experience of seamless transitions. The participants wanted to be able to continue the activities started before getting into the car and in the same way continue with activities after exiting the car. The HMI of the car played an integral part in enabling transitional experiences by allowing drivers to easily and safely connect to the world outside, or by providing entertainment when needed.

4.2 The Car as a Space for Relatedness

Ten of the participants mentioned the enjoyment of utilizing their time in the car by connecting to people that matter to them. For some, the car was one of the most important places for relatedness throughout the whole day, as it was a place where they were able to have some attentive time with children or partner. The HMI of the car also provided an opportunity for relatedness to others outside the car, easily accessible through smartphone integration. This direct and seamless technology shaped daily activities; “I talk more on the phone now than before. (…) you don’t hold anything and it’s like talking to a friend that’s next to you.” (P8). The car “bubble” is broken by the easy accessible opportunity to bring in others into the space, for example by calling a loved one; “If I am alone I will call my mother” (P3), thus creating a space for maintaining relationships over time.

Participants also connected to passengers in the car through shared in-car activities, often enabled by the HMI, such as listening to music, podcasts or audio books together. For example, participants mentioned handing their smartphone to their kids and letting them select the music to play: “When the children get tired in the car you can have them borrow your phone and pick songs on Spotify. They like that because they have the feeling that they control something” (P14). The entertainment system was then a common focus object that enabled a social, shared activity between the car’s occupants. Due to the importance of these experiences the participants considered it very negative when the phone or music integration was not working. One participant related to a highly negative experience when the phone lost connection in the car during a phone call to his young daughter, leaving her in worry and distress. Once an established habit of using the system for relatedness experiences, this experience theme appeared to be stable over time. The experiences themselves could be long term, for example enjoying listening to an audiobook with a partner was a social experience that could continue over weeks. Four of the participants’ photos were exclusively about the phone connection, as an indicator of how important they experienced this functionality to be.

4.3 The Car as a Space for Stimulation

The car has persistently been a symbol of freedom and independence [22], with its ability to offer thrilling driving experiences. In addition to this, modern cars offer many interactive systems that often enhance the driving experience or enable other stimulating experiences for the users. The experience theme of stimulation was evident in fourteen of the participants’ narratives. A stimulating experience was facilitated through the joy of driving for some of the participants: “If I am alone on the road I enjoy the speed (…) I like to feel the acceleration.”(P9), as well as the car’s driving behavior: “You are like an iron on the motorway. It is really difficult to drive within the speed limits because the experience is that you just want to fly” (P7). For other participants, the discovery of new functions, and the utilization of the interactive systems available in the car was a source of stimulation. While some interactive systems aim to inform the driver and provide a sense of control, others enhance the experience of driving through, for instance, changing the look of the car’s displays and systems to match the sporty feeling that drivers may wish to achieve.

For some, the experience of stimulation was mediated through the amount of technology available through the HMI systems. “I monitor lots of things during drives [i.e. GPS and board computer information], I think it is really interesting.” (P2). Others were initially disinterested in additional HMI systems, but nonetheless enjoyed discovering new possibilities after seeing the added value in having for instance a seamless connection between a smartphone and the car’s HMI systems, or the “magical appearance” (P4) of the electric trailer hook.

Finally, the car’s smartphone app that was available to some participants was a stimulant, and a popular topic of conversation with friends and family; “It’s mostly for showing friends what cool functionality there is in the car, and what possibilities technology can give you” (P16). Many of the stimulating experiences, such as the discovery of new in-car technology evidently developed over time. “I find new things all the time” (P10).

4.4 The Car as a Caretaker

Building on the availability of many active safety systems and other advances in technology, eleven participants voiced that they enjoyed the feeling that the car was taking care of their safety, and needs while also providing convenience. However, only one photograph depicted this, as the experience often was highly contextual and sometimes physical. The experience of the caretaking car was created by features such as a seat-belt tightening in sharp corners, creating a kind of “hug”, conveying a strong feeling that the car is taking care of the passenger; “It feels like the car cares for you. It is a nice feeling. I think it may be a gimmick but it is very positive.” (P6). Another feature adding to this notion of an intelligent, caretaking car was the car’s phone app available to some of the participants that contributed by providing knowledge of the cars location and status. Active safety systems and convenience systems were appreciated for saving the driver and passengers from dangers; “A car came and parked behind me, without me knowing, but then the sensors warned first, then I looked at the camera and saw the car that wasn’t there when I parked. (..) I was grateful” (P15). These experiences of security offered by the cars’ systems proved valuable for the users. Finally, the discovery of caretaking functions often took place over longer time periods; “And then I started to discover these systems, in the beginning it was just the BLIS (Blind Spot Indication System) that I saw, and that the steering wheel was vibrating, and that the car worked back and front, that there was a rear view camera. That was what I noticed in the beginning and then I started to read about the other functionalities and how that works…” (P16).

5 Discussion

The discussion section is organized into three subsections. Firstly, a discussion regarding the approach used in the study will be presented. Secondly, the themes, their relation to other similar factors, and how they represent a UX mindset will be outlined. Finally, we will present some design implications that the themes can have on the design process of HMI car systems.

5.1 The Approach

With the approach presented in this work, we aimed to take a holistic stance on the empirical study of experience and collect subjective, personal, and situated data that can help designers better understand and empathize with users’ daily lives in order to support positive experiences for users.

The combination of the semi-structured interviews, the reflexive photography and the UX curve produced a wealth of narrative, rich in experience stories from the everyday lives of participants and their cars. The interviews worked well in collecting data around themes of interest while still allowing for the flexibility to follow interesting narrative wherever it may have lead. The photography provided an entry point for the participants to reflect on what is significant to them when it comes to their cars, while the UX curves infused an over-time perspective into the participants’ narratives.

The three methods represent a holistic approach to empirically studying experiences related to topics of interest. Currently existing models relating to experience such as the model proposed by Norman [23] can be useful in structuring the study of experience but do not provide clear, specific direction as to how one should empirically collect experience data. Jordan’s four pleasures framework [24] provides some directions for applied research, however lacks focus on important aspects such as the over-time experience, and the importance of the context within which the studies take place. Part of the existing empirical user experience work is based on Sheldon’s list of human needs [25]. These are good at highlighting areas of importance, however they lack the rich narrative that can be found in holistic studies of experience as exemplified by the experience themes. In contrast, the methodology used in this study produced specific insights for experiences found in the vehicle domain. Moreover, the study serves as an example of a holistic approach that can also be employed in studying other interactive devices in the wild, especially relevant to technology that is being used in diverse contexts and for diverse reasons, such as smart phone technology or wearable technology.

5.2 The Experience Themes

The experience themes present and summarize experiences that our participants appreciated when using their cars. It is important to recognize that these five themes do not represent all experiences that people appreciate, but rather experiences that can inspire design that promotes positive UX.

The ‘Car as a Space for Transition’ exemplifies how the time spent in the car is filled with activities that prepare users for what comes next in their everyday lives. The ‘car as space for relatedness’ showcases another way in which users turn the time spent in the car into a significant experience by taking the opportunity to connect with loved ones outside the car – through use of a phone – or to people inside the car, through shared activities.

The ‘Car as a space for Stimulation’ is a good example of the significance of the design of HMI systems: users were in awe of the amount of technological possibilities packed into the HMI, and enjoyed mastering the complexity and discovering new ways in which the car’s systems could support their activities. This theme is more novel to automotive UX research and it highlights the importance of longitudinal UX research, as such findings are difficult to make during brief UX studies, and impossible to evaluate unless testing is done over a substantial amount of time. Finally, the ‘Car as a Caretaker’ is a novel theme not recognized elsewhere as of yet, and deserves more research and design ideation in the future. The theme points out the ‘alterity relation’ [26] to be had with cars, i.e. seeing them as an ‘other’, almost a person, who is looking out for their best. Diverse themes like these are to be found in any technology that serves a number of uses and used within different contexts, and they each deserve its own attention.

5.3 Design Implications

The experience themes can have significant impact on the ways car HMI systems are designed. During different phases of the design process of HMI systems, the experience themes can represent the user’s interests in using technology, and provide indication as to how new features can cater to people’s needs. The themes represent some broad areas of interest, which can later in the design process be narrowed down by applying more targeted design methods.

During the user research phase of the design process, the experience themes can help designers focus on specific issues relating to the theme that they chose to design for. In the ideation phases of the design process the experience themes can be a springboard for the generation of personas and scenarios to be used in designing HMI systems, directing the designer’s attention to important enablers of the desired experience.

Finally, the experience themes can be used to evaluate design concepts in terms of their potential to fulfill user needs by aiding users to accomplish their goals, in addition to evaluating functional and task fulfillment requirements. We present a design idea titled ‘contextual car modes’ as an example of where a combination of the themes can lead in terms of design solutions.

5.4 The Contextual Car Mode Design Concept

The Contextual Car Mode (CCM) is a system that is able to customize the experiences that the car affords for a variety of scenarios that can better fit into people’s upcoming goals. With this design, the car uses data collected from onboard sensors, along with aggregated data from social networks and calendars, in order to build a database of patterns of behavior for the car’s user. In turn, the car suggests different modes that may better suit the user depending on these parameters. For instance, when the car user drives to work in the morning, the car will suggest activities that will help prepare the user for the work day, be it up-beat music to help energize the user or relevant news information that may influence the user’s work life. When the workday is over, the car, using GPS location and time of day, will in turn help the user connect with people important to them, thereby supporting experiences of relatedness, or help the user relax and enjoy the drive by enabling the sports mode features on a non-congested highway. We aim to further explore this design, as the CCM is one example where, through use of the UX car themes, the car can intelligently adapt to the user’s daily routines and through the support of experience of relatedness, stimulation, transition enhance the commuting experience.

6 Conclusion

This paper presented research of sixteen users’ in-vehicle experiences. The study revealed a number of positive experiences that people have in cars today, and presented experience themes that exemplify activities to design for – if one is to support elicitation of positive experiences for car users. Time spent in cars is used for a multitude of reasons and goals other than transportation, many of which are enabled through the vehicle HMI systems. Therefore, the commuting time can be a foundation for valuable and meaningful experiences, especially with the imminent arrival of autonomous vehicles that will allows car users more control over their time in the car. This work presents several design implications for the HMI of the car. The methodology used provides a step towards a framework for future holistic work and design explorations of interactive systems, to be used in different phases of the design process, not only for in-car systems but also for any interactive artifact.

User experience design requires the holistic understanding of the user’s current experiences in order to improve the designer’s chances of bettering user’s lives through further enriching positive experiences or limiting negative experiences.