Keywords

1 Introduction

Infographics is a well-known form of visualization of information, which combines images and texts in a coherent structure [1,2,3]. It is employed to convey information that is too complex to be represented by text or images only [4], whether explaining facts, processes or how things work. The key aspects of infographics are the arrangement of elements (text, images) in layers of information and the diagrammatic structure that make linear and/or non-linear reading possible [4,5,6].

Thus, infographic is a graphic representation of information that presents verbal, pictorial and schematic components [2, 4]. The former components regard the use of headings, labels, numbers and captions whether in written or audio text (digital format). The pictorial components regard the use of illustrations, such as drawings, photographs and icons (when in digital format). Finally, the schematic components are those employed to support the verbal and pictorial ones, as for instance, connecting lines, arrows, diagrams, and tables.

When presented in digital form (e.g., online newspaper, e-books, webpages), infographics may make use of technical resources, such as animation, sound, narration and interaction. Such resources are believed to have good acceptance by users [7], promoting content understanding [8, 9], particularly animation. This is considered to facilitate visualization of processes and procedures [10] which are difficult to be shown in static images (e.g., blood circulation), and to reduce cognitive effort [11]. Moreover, combining animation with interaction resources (e.g., play, stop, pause) allows users to focus on particular parts/moments of the animation [11], for instance, by forwarding/backwarding its sequence of content. This may offer users a more immersive viewing/reading experience. In this sense, infographics presenting animation and interaction are of relevance to health communication, as indicated in the study conducted by Arcia et al. [12]. It found positive results in using infographics to communicate information about health treatment and medical procedures.

However, if animation and interaction are over or poorly employed, they may negatively affect understanding and/or cause unpleasant experience to users. This can be perhaps due to drawbacks in the graphic presentation of animation and/or misuse of interaction [8, 10]. Concerning these issues, this paper presents an analytical and empirical study conducted in Brazil on the effects of animation and interaction on understanding newspaper health infographics. A sample of Brazilian newspaper health infographics available in the internet was analysed to identify the graphic characteristics of animation, interaction and presentation of verbal information (written/on screen and audio text/narration). Based upon the results of the analytical study, an infographic representative of sample was selected to be tested with 50 participants to verify the influence of animation, interaction and verbal presentation of information on content understanding. To set the ground, the theoretical rationale of the study is briefly presented next, followed by its methodological procedures, discussion of the results and concluding remarks.

2 Theoretical Background

2.1 Newspaper Animated and Interactive Infographics on Health

Infographics are used in the journalistic field to represent a variety of topics such as entertainment, economics, politics, and health. In Brazil, online newspapers have an important role in communication as a source of reliable information to people. According to a research on Brazilian media communication conducted by the federal government, six out of ten people trust newspaper information [13]. Thus, newspaper may be an effective means to communicated health information to people. Online/digital newspaper infographics can then, aid health education, strengthening preventive actions, mainly in the field of public health [14]. This may prevent unsafe behaviour such as self-medication, that can put at risk the wellbeing of a population [15, 16].

In online newspaper infographics, animations combined with interactive features is said to promote understanding of dynamic information [9], what is particularly relevant to health communication. Several contents on the health field require the representation of movement, as for instance, to explain how the heart pumps blood through the body. Lowe [17] points out that animations demonstrate movement with greater clarity compared to static images, to which movement is not actually showed, but indicated so as to be inferred by viewers/readers.

Animations can have different communication purposes [18]: decorative, attentional, motivational, presentation and elucidation functions. Most health newspaper infographics employ animation with elucidation function to reveal information that cannot be properly perceived in static images (e.g., how a medicine acts in the immunologic system). On the other hand, decorative function of animation in health infographics is not common. Although the decorative function is intended to make animation more attractive, it should be employed with caution (or even avoided), as it may cause distraction and/or deviance from the content explanation.

Regarding the technical presentation of animation, the following aspects were taken into account by Spinillo [7] in an analytical study on animated procedural pictorial sequences:

  • Production techniques: computer-generated 2D and 3D representations, stop-motion (photographs) and video-based animation;

  • Cinematographic features: these simulate camera movements (e.g., panning, traveling, zoom in and zoom out); transition of scenes (e.g., fade in/fade out, dry cut); and framing planes (e.g., general plane, close);

  • Technical effects: these regard resources to emphasize or reveal details of the image (e.g., transparency, magnifying lens effect).

These aspects can be found in newspaper animated health infographics, such as the use of transparency to show internal views of the human body, and the zoom in to call attention to a particular detail of the represented content. It is worth pointing out that even when technical presentation of animation is appropriate, problems in understanding the content may occur. This can be due to deficiencies in the graphic presentation of contents through animation, such as the choice of pictorial style, the representation of visual emphasis, and poor visual hierarchy of textual and pictorial information [7].

Regarding interaction in newspaper animated infographics, this can occur through [6, 19]: (a) linear narrative control (e.g., forwarding and backwarding buttons, scene/segment selections); (b) content controls (e.g., buttons, tabs and links); (c) multimedia controls (e.g., YouTube, Quick Time, VLC); and (d) sensible objects (e.g., mouse over, clicking, dragging). Interaction in health infographics seems to be an important resource as it gives users control over the animation, what is considered to promote content comprehension [8].

2.2 The Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning: An Approach to Interactive Animated Health Infographics

The literature on understanding visual representations of information is considerable [20,21,22]. However, few aim at explaining cognitive processes when one is reading images together with texts, particularly in dynamic representations of contents, such as animations. Taking this into account, the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning - CTML proposed by Mayer [23, 24] seems appropriate to discuss animated and interactive health infographics.

The main objective of this theory is to improve understanding through content presentation strategies that allow individuals to make better use of cognitive resources to learn. For that, the CTML advocates the combined use of images and words to optimize information processing. The theory is grounded on previous research on information processing models and on learning [25,26,27,28,29,30], particularly on the Dual Coding Theory [27]. Accordingly, the CTML [24] is based upon the following:

  1. 1.

    The dual channel (visual and auditory) information processing and recording;

  2. 2.

    Limited capacity of these channels to process information;

  3. 3.

    The construction of knowledge as an active process that involves prior knowledge and newly processed information.

Figure 1 shows Mayer’s diagram of the cognitive model of multimedia learning, according to the CTML. It presents the following boxes (from left to right): the multimedia presentation (words and pictures), the sensory memory (ears and eyes), the working memory (where the cognitive process actually occurs), and the long-term memory (prior knowledge). The arrows indicate the process flow and related actions (selecting, organizing and integrating). Accordingly, ears and eyes receive word and picture inputs, which are selected and processed as images and sounds interchangeably. They are then, organized into verbal and/or pictorial models integrating prior knowledge. In this regard, Mayer [24] claims that when someone hears the word “cat” s/he might also form a mental image of a cat. The output of this process is the understanding/learning from multimedia presentations.

Fig. 1.
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Source: Mayer [24]

Representation of the processing model of the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning.

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It is important to point out that when verbal information is presented as graphic text (written text), it will be processed as both visual and verbal inputs, what may increase the cognitive demand. In order to prevent cognitive overloading, Mayer [24] proposed a set of principles to optimize the use of cognitive resources in learning from verbal and visual representations (static and dynamic). These principles are intended to balance presentation strategies, releasing cognitive resources so as to promote understanding. The principles are summarized in Table 1.

Table 1. Principles of the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning. Source Mayer [24]
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Since interactive animated health infographics displayed in digital newspapers are multimedia representations of content, they are within the scope of CTML. Therefore, the abovementioned principles are suitable for interactive animated health infographics, whether for designing them or for analysing their communication effectiveness. Thus, the CTML was adopted to the study presented herein, which is explained next.

3 The Analytical Study of Graphic Presentation of Newspaper Interactive Animated Health Infographics

This topic presents the graphic analysis of a sample of 21 interactive animated infographics selected from Brazilian newspaper websites. The selection was conducted in an intentional and non-probabilistic way, following the criteria for inclusion: (a) simultaneous use of verbal, schematic and pictorial components, (b) display animations, interaction resources, and (c) address health related issues (e.g., development or prevention of disease, the body’s reactions to chemicals, injuries). This study aimed at identifying the chief characteristics of the sample so as to determine a representative interactive animated health infographic to be tested in the study on comprehension.

The analysis of the sample considered the variables: animation; menus; verbal, pictorial and schematic components; and elements of interaction. Table 2 shows these variables, and Fig. 2 shows an example of a sample analysis according to these variables.

Table 2. Variables analyzed
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Fig. 2.
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Example of sample analysis

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The results of this study were analyzed qualitatively in the light of the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning [24]. This allowed a deeper look at the graphic representation of contents in the interactive animated health infographics of the sample. However, incidence of the variables in the sample was considered to indicate possible graphic trends.

3.1 Main Results and Discussion of the Analytical Study

In general, animation was employed to convey the main health contents of the infographics, drawings style was used to depict the human body and sectional views to show internal parts of the body. The combined use of sectional views and drawings is typical in anatomy illustrations, as those in the medical atlases. The menus were mainly located inside the infographics, showing verbal elements, such as buttons displaying words to indicate different stages of the content of the infographic. The menus also employed schematic elements for narrative control (e.g., arrows, small squares). In addition, schematic elements (lines, arrows) were used to link images to their referring texts (captions, labels). Color was predominantly used to emphasize certain parts of the images/animations to call viewers/users attention.

Most health infographics of the sample presented animation with elucidation function (n = 13), making visible parts/elements which would not be possible for a naked eye. Some infographics (n = 9) also presented animation with decorative function. This may distract viewers from the focus of the explanation [18] and may affect perception and comprehension. In addition, decorative animation does not meet the principle of Coherence of the CTML, which states that irrelevant information should be avoided to promote learning [24].

In general, text was employed predominantly on screen (n = 24) to convey the health contents. Narration occurred in one infographic only, but together with text. This contradicts the Modality and Redundancy principles of the CTML [24]. The former states that narration should be used rather than text on screen, and the latter claims that text together with animation overload cognitive processing as both are visual inputs. Accordingly, the use of on-screen text in animated health infographics may weaken comprehension.

Regarding interaction, it was employed in a limited way in most infographics. There was a predominance of simple narrative controls (n = 12) which only allowed forwarding and/or backwarding the content sequence. Other forms of interaction, such as multimedia controls (n = 2) and sensible objects (n = 6), were hardly employed in the sample. This suggests that the interaction as an aid to learning/understanding [21] seems to be neglected in the design of newspaper animated health infographics. Figure 3 shows examples of narrative controls in the sample.

Fig. 3.
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Narrative Controls in the sample

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Based upon the results of the analytical study, an infographic representative of the sample was selected to be tested in the empirical study, which is explained next.

4 The Empirical Study on Comprehension of a Newspaper Health Infographic

As previously mentioned, this study verified the effects of animation, interaction and modes of text presentation (independent variables) on comprehension (dependent variable) of digital newspaper health infographics.

Participants and material

A total of 50 adult participants, male and female, volunteered to this study. Their age ranged from 18 to 25 years old, and their education level was high (graduate and undergraduate). The material tested consisted of the infographic “The effects of sibutramine” (Fig. 4) which was representative of the sample analyzed. It explains the action, effects and restrictions of sibutramine, a controlled prescription drug for obesity treatment.

Fig. 4.
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Source: http://zerohora.clicrbs.com.br/rs/vida-e-estilo/bem-estar/infografico/os-efeitos-ofsibutramine-on-body-35311.html

Infographic “The effects of sibutramine in the body” from the Brazilian online newspaper Zero Hora

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Five versions of the infographic were developed for testing (Fig. 5): animation and on-screen text (AT); animation, narration and on-screen text (ANT); animation, narration without text (ANWT); interaction, animation and on-screen text (IAT); and interaction, static images and on-screen text (IST).

Fig. 5.
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Versions of the tested infographic

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All versions presented the stages of the “The effects of sibutramine” (Fig. 6): an introduction explaining what the drug is for; the Stage (1) showing where the drug acts in the body; the Stage (2) explaining what happens in the body and neural system with and without the drug, focusing on the brain centers for hunger and satiety; the Stage (3) showing how these centers are affected by sibutramine and; the Stage (4) explaining the well-being and happiness caused by the drug use.

Fig. 6.
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Stages of the infographic tested

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Procedures

The participants were divided into five independent groups for the testing versions of the infographic. Each participant was asked to view/interact (when pertinent) with the infographic individually and at a time. Afterwards, they are asked to engage in a semi-structured interview about the infographic content. The responses were recorded in video and written notes.

The results were analyzed qualitatively, and numbers were considered to identify trends in the participants’ responses. The responses on understanding the infographic content were considered as: Understood (U); Partly Understood (PU), Not Understood or Inadequate Response (NU/IR). When an interview question was not responded by a participant, it was classified as “Not Responded (NR)”. To consider an answer as “Understood (U), it should state that sibutramine in the body blocks the absorption of neurotransmitters and, thus, reduces the feeling of hunger and prolongs satiety.

4.1 Main Results and Discussion of the Comprehension Test

A total of 350 responses were provided by the participants, most of them (n = 294) were considered satisfactory, classified as (U) and (PU). By comparing the results across groups, participants who viewed the Animated version (AT) had the highest rate of correct responses (n = 63) and the lowest for not-understanding (n = 7). On the other hand, participants who viewed the Interactive Static version (IST) had the highest rate of responses for not-understanding (n = 16). Table 3 shows the general results.

Table 3. General results
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The high level of understanding (U and PU) of the Animated version with on-screen text (AT) corroborates the assumption that animation aids to explain abstract/complex contents [4]. For example, participants considered the explanatory animations found in stages 2 and 3, to aid understanding the infographic.

The presence of interaction in IAT and IST versions showed high rates for not understanding (n = 16 and n = 11 respectively). These results seem to oppose studies that indicated the use of interaction enhances understanding [17, 18] as mentioned in the Sect. 2 of this article.

Regarding text presentation modes (on-screen and narration), the results are not in alignment with the Principles of Modality and Redundancy of CTML. The Modality Principle states that narration rather than written text enhances learning when presented together with pictures/animation on screen. However, most participants did not understand the Animated Narrated version Without Text (ANWT), as it presented the highest rates for Not Understood. It is worth mention that this version was visualized about two times by the participants during the test. Regarding the Redundancy Principle, it states that the simultaneous use of narration and text on screen divides attention and may overload the visual channel (written text and animation/images). Thus, narration should again be preferred to written text. Nevertheless, participants’ responses may suggest otherwise. The version presenting narration together with on-screen text (ANT) showed a higher level of understanding than the version without on-screen text (ANWT), i.e., narration only. It is worth mentioning that Brazilians are used to read subtitles (on- screen text) in foreign films in television and cinema. This may have influenced their performance. However, as cultural aspects were not investigated, they are beyond the scope of this study.

5 Conclusions and Final Considerations

The qualitative approach adopted to the studies presented herein does not allow generalizations of their results. However, it is possible to draw some conclusions. The outcomes of the analytical study suggest that the Brazilian newspaper health infographics were not in alignment with the principles of the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning [24], particularly the principles of Coherence, Modality and Redundancy. These principles are aimed at improving learning/comprehension of multimedia presentation material.

Nevertheless, when verifying comprehension of the infographic representative of the sample analyzed with Brazilian participants, the results did not fully support the principles of Modality and Redundancy. The versions presenting on-screen text showed better results on comprehension than those without text, except the version in which on-screen text was presented with interaction and animation (IAT). This version showed the lowest rate in comprehension, whereas interaction employed with static images produced the highest rate (IST). These unexpected results may lead to question: (a) the positive effect of interaction employed together with animation; and (b) the negative effect of on-screen text employed together with animation or static images.

Although these results are not conclusive, they indicate the need for further empirical investigation of the effects of animation and interaction on comprehension of newspaper health infographics, particularly regarding the principles of the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning. Moreover, the outcomes could also indicate that cultural aspects may play a part on understanding multimedia material, therefore, worth investigating.

Finally, it is hoped that the outcomes of these studies may contribute to broaden the scope of research on digital newspaper health infographics by considering cognitive aspects of their users/readers from information design perspective.