Abstract
The paper presents a computational model for decision-making in a social dilemma that takes into account the other party’s emotion displays. The model is based on data collected in a series of recent studies where participants play the iterated prisoner’s dilemma with agents that, even though following the same action strategy, show different emotion displays according to how the game unfolds. We collapse data from all these studies and fit, using maximum likelihood estimation, probabilistic models that predict likelihood of cooperation in the next round given different features. Model 1 predicts based on round outcome alone. Model 2 predicts based on outcome and emotion displays. Model 3 also predicts based on outcome and emotion but, considers contrast effects found in the empirical studies regarding the order with which participants play cooperators and non-cooperators. To evaluate the models, we replicate the original studies but, substitute the humans for the models. The results reveal that Model 3 best replicates human behavior in the original studies and Model 1 does the worst. The results, first, emphasize recent research about the importance of nonverbal cues in social dilemmas and, second, reinforce that people attend to contrast effects in their decision-making. Theoretically, the model provides further insight into how people behave in social dilemmas. Pragmatically, the model could be used to drive an agent that is engaged in a social dilemma with a human (or another agent).
This research supported by the Air Force Office of Scientific Research under grant FA9550-09-1-0507 and the National Science Foundation under grant IIS-0916858. The content does not necessarily reflect the position or the policy of the Government, and no official endorsement should be inferred.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Jennings, N.R., Sycara, K., Wooldridge, M.: A Roadmap of Agent Research and Development. Autonomous Agents and Multi-Agent Systems 1, 275–306 (1998)
Kraus, S.: Negotiation and Cooperation in Multi-Agent Environments. Artificial Intelligence 94(1-2), 79–98 (1997)
Tversky, A., Kahneman, D.: The framing of decisions and the psychology of choice. Science 211, 453–458 (1981)
Loewenstein, G., Lerner, J.: The role of affect in decision making. In: Davidson, R.J., Scherer, K.R., Goldsmith, H.H. (eds.) Handbook of Affective Sciences, pp. 619–642. Oxford University Press, Oxford (2003)
Kollock, P.: Social Dilemmas: The Anatomy of Cooperation. Annual Review of Sociology 24, 183–214 (1998)
McClintock, C.G., Liebrand, W.B.G.: Role of interdependence structure, individual value orientation, and another’s strategy in social decision making: a transformational analysis. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 55(3), 396–409 (1988)
Kramer, R.M., Brewer, M.B.: Social group identity and the emergence of cooperation in resource conservation dilemmas. In: Wilke, H.A.M., Messick, D.M., Rutte, C. (eds.) Experimental Social Dilemmas, pp. 205–234. Verlag Peter Lang, Frankfurt (1986)
Axelrod, R.: The Evolution of Cooperation. Basic Books, New York (1984)
Yamagishi, T.: The provision of a sanctioning system as a public good. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 51, 110–116 (1986)
Jerdee, T.H., Rosen, B.: Effects of opportunity to communicate and visibility of individual decisions on behavior in the common interest. J. Appl. Soc. Psychol. 59, 712–716 (1974)
Boone, R., Buck, R.: Emotional expressivity and trustworthiness: The role of nonverbal behavior in the evolution of cooperation. J. of Nonverbal Behav. 27, 163–182 (2003)
Frank, R.H.: Passions within reason: The strategic role of the emotions. Norton, NY (1988)
Schug, J., Matsumoto, D., Horita, Y., Yamagishi, T., Bonnet, K.: Emotional expressivity as a signal of cooperation. Evolution and Human Behavior 31, 87–94 (2010)
de Melo, C., Zheng, L., Gratch, J.: Expression of Moral Emotions in Cooperating Agents. In: Ruttkay, Z., Kipp, M., Nijholt, A., Vilhjálmsson, H.H. (eds.) IVA 2009. LNCS, vol. 5773, pp. 301–307. Springer, Heidelberg (2009)
de Melo, C., Carnevale, P., Gratch, J.: The influence of Emotions in Embodied Agents on Human Decision-Making. In: Allbeck, J., et al. (eds.) IVA 2010. LNCS, vol. 6356, pp. 357–370. Springer, Heidelberg (2010)
de Melo, C., Carnevale, P., Gratch, J.: The Impact of Emotion Displays in Embodied Agents on Emergence of Cooperation with People. Submitted to J. Presence (submitted)
de Melo, C., Carnevale, P., Gratch, J.: Reverse Appraisal: Inferring from Emotion Displays who is the Cooperator and the Competitor in a Social Dilemma. In: Proc. of 33rd Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society, pp. 396–401 (2011)
Gratch, J., Rickel, J., Andre, E., Badler, N., Cassell, J., Petajan, E.: Creating Interactive Virtual Humans: Some Assembly Required. IEEE Intelligent Systems 17(4), 54–63 (2002)
Reeves, B., Nass, C.: The Media Equation: How People Treat Computers, Television, and New Media Like Real People and Places. University of Chicago Press, Chicago (1996)
Blascovich, J.: Social influence within immersive virtual environments. In: Schroeder, R. (ed.) The Social Life of Avatars: Presence and Interaction in Shared Virtual Environments, pp. 127–145. Springer, London (2002)
Blascovich, J., Loomis, J., Beall, A.C., Swinth, K.R., Hoyt, C.L., Bailenson, J.N.: Immersive virtual environment technology as a methodological tool for social psychology. Psychological Inquiry 13, 103–124 (2002)
Hilty, J., Carnevale, P.: Black-Hat/White-Hat Strategy in Bilateral Negotiation. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 55, 444–469 (1993)
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2011 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
About this paper
Cite this paper
de Melo, C.M., Carnevale, P., Antos, D., Gratch, J. (2011). A Computer Model of the Interpersonal Effect of Emotion Displayed in a Social Dilemma. In: D’Mello, S., Graesser, A., Schuller, B., Martin, JC. (eds) Affective Computing and Intelligent Interaction. ACII 2011. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol 6974. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-24600-5_10
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-24600-5_10
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-642-24599-2
Online ISBN: 978-3-642-24600-5
eBook Packages: Computer ScienceComputer Science (R0)