Abstract
Unsupervised domain adaptation (UDA), which can transfer knowledge from labeled source domain to unlabeled target domain, needs to access a large number of labeled source data in the process of generalization. However, the data of two domains may not be accessed at the same time due to data privacy protection. To solve this problem, source-data free domain adaptation (SFDA) began to receive attention. However, too little source information will lead to some performance gaps. To balance the issues between UDA and SFDA, a new setting called Prototype-based domain adaptation (Prototype-DA) is proposed, which further improves the practicability of UDA by using source category prototype instead of source data. At the same time, it can also ensure the privacy of source data like SFDA. Specifically, our training process can be divided into two steps. First, the source data is used to pre-train a source model, and the source category prototypes are obtained after the training of source model. Then, to generalize the source model to the target domain, category maximum mean discrepancy (Category-MMD) is defined so that the target data can be aligned with the source category prototypes. In this way, source category prototypes will transfer knowledge to the target domain together with the source model. Through source category prototypes, Prototype-DA can not only achieve the comparable results than the method using source data, but also protect the privacy of source data to some extent. Furthermore, the target category prototypes are constructed and the consistency between the labels of target category prototypes and the classification results is required. This prototype-label consistency regularization, proposed by us for the first time, helps to extract discriminative features in the target domain. Compared with the previous UDA methods and SFDA methods, extensive experiments on multiple public domain adaptation datasets show that Prototype-DA achieves the state-of-the-art results. At the same time, the traditional UDA theory is expanded to our method setting and makes a theoretical analysis to ensure the effectiveness of our method.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ben-David S, Blitzer J, Crammer K, Kulesza A, Pereira F, Vaughan JW (2010) A theory of learning from different domains. Mach Learn 79(1–2):151–175
Bonawitz K, Eichner H, Grieskamp W, Huba D, Ingerman A, Ivanov V, Kiddon C, Konečnỳ J, Mazzocchi S, McMahan HB, et al (2019) Towards federated learning at scale: system design. arXiv preprint arXiv:1902.01046
Bonawitz K, Ivanov V, Kreuter B, Marcedone A, McMahan HB, Patel S, Ramage D, Segal A, Seth K (2017) Practical secure aggregation for privacy-preserving machine learning. Proceedings of the 2017 ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security, pp. 1175–1191
Chen C, Xie W, Huang W, Rong Y, Ding X, Huang Y, Xu T, Huang J (2019) Progressive feature alignment for unsupervised domain adaptation. Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on computer vision and pattern recognition, pp. 627–636
Chen C, Zheng Z, Ding X, Huang Y, Dou Q (2020) Harmonizing transferability and discriminability for adapting object detectors. In: Proceedings of the IEEE/CVF Conference on computer vision and pattern recognition, pp. 8869–8878
Chen M, Zhao S, Liu H, Cai D (2020) Adversarial-learned loss for domain adaptation. In: AAAI, pp. 3521–3528
Chen X, Wang S, Long M, Wang J (2019) Transferability vs. discriminability: batch spectral penalization for adversarial domain adaptation. International Conference on machine learning, pp. 1081–1090
Chidlovskii B, Clinchant S, Csurka G (2016) Domain adaptation in the absence of source domain data. Proceedings of the 22nd ACM SIGKDD International conference on knowledge discovery and data mining, pp. 451–460
Crammer K, Kearns M, Wortman J (2008) Learning from multiple sources. J Mach Learn Res 9(Aug):1757–1774
Deng J, Li W, Chen Y, Duan L (2020) Unbiased mean teacher for cross domain object detection. arXiv preprint arXiv:2003.00707
Deng Z, Luo Y, Zhu J (2019) Cluster alignment with a teacher for unsupervised domain adaptation. Proceedings of the IEEE International conference on computer vision, pp. 9944–9953
Ganin Y, Ustinova E, Ajakan H, Germain P, Larochelle H, Laviolette F, Marchand M, Lempitsky V (2016) Domain-adversarial training of neural networks. J Mach Learn Resear 17(1):2030–2096
Goodfellow I, Pouget-Abadie J, Mirza M, Xu B, Warde-Farley D, Ozair S, Courville A, Bengio Y (2014) Generative adversarial nets. Advances in neural information processing systems, pp. 2672–2680
He K, Zhang X, Ren S, Sun J (2016) Deep residual learning for image recognition. Proceedings of the IEEE conference on computer vision and pattern recognition, pp. 770–778
Hou Y, Zheng L (2021) Visualizing adapted knowledge in domain transfer. In: Proceedings of the IEEE/CVF Conference on computer vision and pattern recognition, pp. 13824–13833
Hu L, Kan M, Shan S, Chen X (2020) Unsupervised domain adaptation with hierarchical gradient synchronization. Proceedings of the IEEE/CVF Conference on computer vision and pattern recognition, pp. 4043–4052
Jiang X, Lao Q, Matwin S, Havaei M (2020) Implicit class-conditioned domain alignment for unsupervised domain adaptation. arXiv preprint arXiv:2006.04996
Kim Y, Hong S, Cho D, Park H, Panda P (2020) Domain adaptation without source data. arXiv preprint arXiv:2007.01524
Krizhevsky A, Sutskever I, Hinton GE (2012) Imagenet classification with deep convolutional neural networks. Advances in neural information processing systems, pp. 1097–1105
Kurmi VK, Subramanian VK, Namboodiri VP (2021) Domain impression: A source data free domain adaptation method. In: Proceedings of the IEEE/CVF winter conference on applications of computer vision, pp. 615–625
Lee CY, Batra T, Baig MH, Ulbricht D (2019) Sliced wasserstein discrepancy for unsupervised domain adaptation. Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on computer vision and pattern recognition, pp. 10285–10295
Li R, Jiao Q, Cao W, Wong HS, Wu S (2020) Model adaptation: Unsupervised domain adaptation without source data. Proceedings of the IEEE/CVF Conference on computer vision and pattern recognition, pp. 9641–9650
Liang J, He R, Sun Z, Tan T (2019) Distant supervised centroid shift: A simple and efficient approach to visual domain adaptation. Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on computer vision and pattern recognition, pp. 2975–2984
Liang J, Hu D, Feng J (2020) Do we really need to access the source data? source hypothesis transfer for unsupervised domain adaptation. International conference on machine learning (ICML)
Long M, Cao Y, Wang J, Jordan M (2015) Learning transferable features with deep adaptation networks. International conference on machine learning, pp. 97–105. PMLR
Long M, Cao Z, Wang J, Jordan MI (2018) Conditional adversarial domain adaptation. Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, pp. 1640–1650
Long M, Wang J, Ding G, Sun J, Yu PS (2013) Transfer feature learning with joint distribution adaptation. Proceedings of the IEEE international conference on computer vision, pp. 2200–2207
Long M, Zhu H, Wang J, Jordan MI (2016) Unsupervised domain adaptation with residual transfer networks. Advances in neural information processing systems, pp. 136–144
Long M, Zhu H, Wang J, Jordan MI (2017) Deep transfer learning with joint adaptation networks. International conference on machine learning, pp. 2208–2217. PMLR
Loshchilov I, Hutter F (2016) Sgdr: Stochastic gradient descent with warm restarts. arXiv preprint arXiv:1608.03983
Lu Z, Yang Y, Zhu X, Liu C, Song YZ, Xiang T (2020) Stochastic classifiers for unsupervised domain adaptation. Proceedings of the IEEE/CVF Conference on computer vision and pattern recognition, pp. 9111–9120
Maaten LVD, Hinton G (2008) Visualizing data using t-sne. J Mach Learn Resear 9(Nov):2579–2605
Mansour Y, Mohri M, Rostamizadeh A (2009) Domain adaptation with multiple sources. Advances in neural information processing systems, pp. 1041–1048
McMahan HB, Ramage D, Talwar K, Zhang L (2018) Learning differentially private recurrent language models. International Conference on Learning Representations
Müller R, Kornblith S, Hinton GE (2019) When does label smoothing help? Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, pp. 4694–4703
Nelakurthi AR, Maciejewski R, He J (2018) Source free domain adaptation using an off-the-shelf classifier. 2018 IEEE International conference on big data (Big Data), pp. 140–145. IEEE
Pan SJ, Tsang IW, Kwok JT, Yang Q (2010) Domain adaptation via transfer component analysis. IEEE Trans Neur Netw 22(2):199–210
Pan SJ, Yang Q (2009) A survey on transfer learning. IEEE Trans Knowl Data Eng 22(10):1345–1359
Peng X, Huang Z, Zhu Y, Saenko K (2019) Federated adversarial domain adaptation. International Conference on Learning Representations
Peng X, Usman B, Kaushik N, Hoffman J, Wang D, Saenko K (2017) Visda: The visual domain adaptation challenge. arXiv preprint arXiv:1710.06924
Pinheiro PO (2018) Unsupervised domain adaptation with similarity learning. Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on computer vision and pattern recognition, pp. 8004–8013
Saenko K, Kulis B, Fritz M, Darrell T (2010) Adapting visual category models to new domains. European conference on computer vision, pp. 213–226. Springer
Saito K, Kim D, Sclaroff S, Darrell T, Saenko K (2019) Semi-supervised domain adaptation via minimax entropy. ICCV
Saito K, Ushiku Y, Harada T, Saenko K (2017) Adversarial dropout regularization. arXiv preprint arXiv:1711.01575
Tang H, Jia K (2020) Discriminative adversarial domain adaptation. AAAI, pp. 5940–5947
Tommasi T, Orabona F, Caputo B (2013) Learning categories from few examples with multi model knowledge transfer. IEEE Trans Patt Anal Mach Intell 36(5):928–941
Torralba A, Efros AA (2011) Unbiased look at dataset bias. CVPR 2011, pp. 1521–1528. IEEE
Tzeng E, Hoffman J, Saenko K, Darrell T (2017) Adversarial discriminative domain adaptation. Proceedings of the IEEE conference on computer vision and pattern recognition, pp. 7167–7176
Venkateswara H, Eusebio J, Chakraborty S, Panchanathan S (2017) Deep hashing network for unsupervised domain adaptation. Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on computer vision and pattern recognition, pp. 5018–5027
Wang X, Jin Y, Long M, Wang J, Jordan MI (2019) Transferable normalization: Towards improving transferability of deep neural networks. Advances in neural information processing systems, pp. 1953–1963
Xie S, Zheng Z, Chen L, Chen C (2018) Learning semantic representations for unsupervised domain adaptation. International conference on machine learning, pp. 5423–5432
Xu R, Li G, Yang J, Lin L (2019) Larger norm more transferable: An adaptive feature norm approach for unsupervised domain adaptation. Proceedings of the IEEE International conference on computer vision, pp. 1426–1435
Yang J, Yan R, Hauptmann AG (2007) Cross-domain video concept detection using adaptive svms. Proceedings of the 15th ACM international conference on Multimedia, pp. 188–197
Yosinski J, Clune J, Bengio Y, Lipson H (2014) How transferable are features in deep neural networks. Advances in neural information processing systems, pp. 3320–3328
Zhu Y, Zhuang F, Wang J, Ke G, Chen J, Bian J, Xiong H, He Q (2020) Deep subdomain adaptation network for image classification. IEEE Trans Neur Netw Learn Sys 32(4):1713–1722
Acknowledgements
This work was supported in part by the National Key R &D Program of China (2018Y-FE0203900), Important Science and Technology Innovation Projects in Chengdu (2018-YF08-00039-GX), Key R &D Programs of Sichuan Science and Technology Department (2020YFG0476).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
We declare that we have no financial and personal relationships with other people or organizations that can inappropriately influence our work, there is no professional or other personal interest of any nature or kind in any product, service and/or company that could be construed as influencing the position presented in, or the review of, the manuscript entitled, generative adversarial networks with adaptive learning strategy for noise-to-image synthesis.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Zhou, L., Ye, M. & Xiao, S. Domain adaptation based on source category prototypes. Neural Comput & Applic 34, 21191–21203 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00521-022-07601-x
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00521-022-07601-x