Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Information processing challenges and research directions in CCTV surveillance

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Cognition, Technology & Work Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The aim of this paper is to review research on the cognitive processes involved in closed circuit television (CCTV) surveillance, and make recommendations for further research and for practitioners. CCTV provides a socially relevant context for visual attention and search, because it involves dynamic natural images, multiple cameras that are frequently expected to be monitored simultaneously and a range of significant events which are often accompanied by high levels of uncertainty. In recent years, increasing research attention has been paid to operators’ cognitive processes in CCTV surveillance. Prior to this, the focus was largely on evaluations of systems for the purposes of developing guidelines for system design. The literature review identified 56 relevant documents. These are discussed in terms of the purpose of CCTV surveillance, the design of the technical system, nature of images, scenes and significant events, and the implications for information processing by operators. Recommendations for future research include, amongst others, context specific research, search strategies and scanning patterns, mechanisms for re-engaging attention after task disengagement, the contribution of active visual analysis, behavioural cues that predict aberrant behaviour. Specific recommendations for practitioners are made regarding translating research findings into practice and enhancing the cognitive surveillance skills of operators.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Aldridge J, Gilbert C (1996) Performance testing of CCTV perimeter surveillance systems. Police Scientific Development Branch, St. Albans, United Kingdom

  • Bedi SS, Khandelwal R (2013) Various image enhancement techniques – a critical review. Int J Adv Res Comput Commun Eng 2(3):1605–1609

    Google Scholar 

  • Blechko A, Darker I, Gale A (2008) Skills in detecting gun carrying from CCTV. In: Klima M (ed.) IEEE international Carnahan conference on security technology. IEEE Press, New York

  • Bobak AK, Hancock PJB, Bate S (2016) Super-recognisers in action: evidence from face-matching and face memory tasks. Appl Cognit Psychol 30:81–91. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3170

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bruce V, Henderson Z, Newman C, Burton AM (2001) Matching identities of familiar and unfamiliar faces caught on CCTV images. J Exp Psychol-Appl 7(3):207–218

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cameron A, Kolodinski E, May H, Williams N (2008) Measuring the effects of video surveillance on crime in Los Angeles. Technical report number CRB-08-00, prepared for the California Research Bureau by the USC School of Policy, Planning and Development, Los Angeles. Retrieved from http://www.library.ca.gov/crb/08/08-007.pdf

  • Castelhano MS, Heaven C (2010) The relative contribution of scene context and target features to visual search in scenes. Atten Percept Psycho 72:1283–1297

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cole H, Wood J (2006) The relationship between image complexity and task difficulty as rated by experienced and novice viewers. In: Meeting diversity in ergonomics, international ergonomics association congress. Elsevier, Amsterdam

    Google Scholar 

  • Davies DR, Parasuraman R (1982) The psychology of vigilance. Academic Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis J, Valentine T (2008) CCTV on trial: Matching video images with the defendant in the dock. Appl Cognitive Psych 23(4):482–505

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Donald C (2001) Vigilance. In: Noyes J, Bransby M (eds) People in control: Human factors in control room design. The Institute of Electrical Engineers, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Donald C (2004) How many monitors should a CCTV operator view? Hi-tech Security Solutions. http://www.securitysa.com/article.aspx?pklarticleid=3313

  • Donald FM (2008) The classification of vigilance tasks in the real world. Ergonomics 51(11):1643–1655. https://doi.org/10.1080/00140130802327219

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Donald FM (2010) A model of CCTV surveillance operator performance. Ergonomics SA 22(2):2–13

    Google Scholar 

  • Donald C (2012) Shifts and work periods for CCTV operators. Hi-tech Security Solutions. http://www.securitysa.com/news.aspx?pklnewsid=41435

  • Donald F, Donald C (2011) Individualised responses to vigilance demands and their management. In: Proceedings of the fourth Australian security and intelligence conference. Edith Cowan University, Perth, Western Australia, 5-7 Dec 2011, pp 74–80

  • Donald FM, Donald C (2015) Task disengagement and implications for vigilance performance in CCTV surveillance. Cogn Technol Work, 17: 121–130. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10111-014-0309-8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Donald FM, Donald C, Thatcher A (2015) Work exposure and vigilance decrements in closed circuit television surveillance. Appl Ergon 47: 220–228. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apergo.2014.10.001

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Einhaüser W, Rutishauser U, Koch C (2008) Task demands can immediately reverse the effects of sensory-driven saliency in complex visual stimuli. J Vision 8(2):1–19

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Foulsham T, Underwood G (2008) What can saliency models predict about eye movements? Spatial and sequential aspects of fixations during encoding and recognition. J Vision 8(2):1–17

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gill M, Spriggs A, Allen J, Hemming M, Jessiman P, Kara D, Kilworth J, Little R, Swain D (2005) Control room operation: Findings from control room observations. Home office Research, Development

    Google Scholar 

  • Grant D, Williams D (2011) The importance of perceiving social contexts when predicting crime and antisocial behavior in CCTV images. Legal Criminol Psych 16:307–322. https://doi.org/10.1348/135532510X512665

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Greenberg DF, Roush JB (2009) The effectiveness of an electronic security management system in a privately owned apartment complex. Evaluation Rev 33:3–26

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Helten F, Fischer B (2003) Video surveillance on demand for various purposes? Berlin shopping malls as socio-technical testbeds for CCTV. Urbaneye working paper 11, Berlin Institute for Social Research, Berlin, Germany

  • Helten F, Fischer B (2004) Reactive attention: Video surveillance in Berlin shopping malls. Surveill Soc 2(2/3):323–345. http://www.surveillance-and-society.org/cctv.htm

  • Hillstrom AP, Hope L, Nee C (2008) Applying psychological science to the CCTV review process: A review of cognitive and ergonomic literature. Home Office Scientific Development Branch, UK

  • Hodgetts HM, Vachon F, Chamberland C, Tremblay S (2017) See no evil: cognitive challenges of security surveillance and monitoring. J Appl Res Memory Cognit 6(3):230–243

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Howard CJ, Troscianko T, Gilchrist ID, Behera A, Hogg DC (2009) Searching for threat: factors determining performance during CCTV monitoring. In: de Waard D, Godthelp J, Kooi FL, Brookhuis KA (eds.). Human Factors, Security and Safety. Shaker Publishing, Maastricht, pp 1–7

  • Howard CJ, Gilchrist ID, Troscianko T, Behera A, Hogg DC (2011) Task relevance predicts gaze in videos of real moving scenes. Exp Brain Res 214:131–137. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-011-2812-y

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Howard CJ, Troscianko T, Gilchrist ID, Behera A, Hogg DC (2013) Suspiciousness perception in dynamic scenes: a comparison of CCTV operators and novices. Front Hum Neurosci 441:1–9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00441

    Google Scholar 

  • Itti L, Koch C (2000) A saliency-based search mechanism for overt and covert shifts of visual attention. Vision Res 40(10–12):1489–1506

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keval H (2008) CCTV control room collaboration and communication. In: : Does it work? 9th Human Centred Technology Group Postgraduate Workshop, Department of Informatics, University of Sussex, Falmer, Brighton, (pp. 45–48)

  • Keval H, Sasse MA (2006) Man or a Gorilla? Performance issues with CCTV technology in security control rooms. Perception 33:87–101. https://doi.org/10.1068/p3402

    Google Scholar 

  • Keval H, Sasse MA (2008). To catch a thief - you need at least 8 frames per second: the impact of frame rates on user performance in a CCTV detection task. In: Proceedings of the 16th ACM international conference on Multimedia (pp. 941–944). ACM.Layne R, Hospedales T, Gong S (2012) Person re-identification by attributes. British Machine Vision Conference, 2(3):1–8

  • Keval H, Sasse MA (2008) “Not the usual suspects”: A study of factors reducing the effectiveness of CCTV. Secur J 1–21

  • Layne R, Hospedales T, Gong S (2012) Person re-identification by attributes. British machine vision conference, vol 2, pp 1–8

  • Menneer T, Donnelly N, Godwin HJ, Cave KR (2010) High or low target prevalence increases the dual-target cost in visual search. J Exp Psychol-Appl 16(2):133–144. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019569

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Minotra D, McNeese MD (2017) Predictive aids can lead to sustained attention decrements in the detection of non-routine critical events in event monitoring. Cogn Tech Work 19:161–177. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10111-017-0402-x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Norris C, Armstrong G (1999) The maximum surveillance society: The rise of CCTV. Berg, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • Parasuraman R, Mouloua M (1996) Automation and human performance: theory and applications. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Mahwah, NJ

    Google Scholar 

  • Parasuraman R, de Visser E, Clarke E, McGarry WR, Hussey E, Shaw T, Thompson JC (2009) Detecting threat-related intentional actions of others: Effects of image quality, response mode, and target cuing on vigilance. J Exp Psychol-Appl 15(4):275–290. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017132

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pelletier S, Suss J, Vacho F, Tremblay S (2015, April) Atypical visual display for monitoring multiple CCTV feeds. In: Proceedings 33rd Annual ACM Conference Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 1145–1150). ACM, Chicago

  • Petrini K, McAleer P, Neary C, Gillard J, Pollick FE (2014) Experience in judging intent to harm modulates parahippocampal activity: An fMRI study with experienced CCTV operators. Cortex 57:74–91

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pikaar R (2015a) Human Factors Guidelines for CCTV system design, 19. Triennial Congress of the IEA, Melbourne

    Google Scholar 

  • Pikaar R (2015b) Human Factors Guidelines for the design of CCTV- systems, revision 1.3. Published by HAN University of Applied Sciences, Arnhem; vhp human performance, The Hague: ErgoS Human Factors Engineering, Enschede; Intergo Human Factors & Ergonomics, Utrecht. https://www.sintef.no/globalassets/project/hfc/documents/cctv-hf-guidelines-revision-1-3-may2015.pdf

  • Schreibers KBJ, Landman RB, Pikaar RN (2012) Human Factors of CCTV: Part 1 Technology and literature review. ErgoS Engineering and Ergonomics, Enschede, Reference: S386-R1.CCT

  • Scott-Brown KC, Cronin PDJ (2007) An instinct for detection: Psychological perspectives on CCTV surveillance. The Police Journal 80:287–305

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Singh S (2009) Work experiences of CCTV surveillance operators. Dissertation, University of the Witwatersrand

  • Smith GJD (2004) Behind the scenes: Examining constructions of deviance and informal practices among CCTV control room operators in the UK. Surveill Soc 2(2/3):376–395

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith GJD (2012) Surveillance work(ers). In: Ball K, Haggerty K, Lyon D (eds) Routledge Handbook of Surveillance Studies. Routledge, Oxon, pp 107–116

    Google Scholar 

  • Stainer MJ, Scott-Brown KC, Tatler BW (2013a) Looking for trouble: A description of oculomotor search strategies during live CCTV operation. Front Hum Neurosci 7:615. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00615

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stainer MJ, Scott-Brown KC, Tatler BW (2013b) Behavioral biases when viewing multiplexed scenes: Scene structure and frames of reference for inspection. Front Psychol 4:624. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00624

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stainer MJ, Scott-Brown KC, Tatler BW (2017) On the factors causing processing difficulty of multiple-scene displays. I-Perception:1–26. (0.1177/2041669516689572)

  • Starke S, Cooke N, Howes A, Morar N, Baber C (2015) Visual sampling in a road traffic management control room task. In: International conference on ergonomics & human factors, Taylor & Francis (pp. 503–511)

  • Stedmon AW, Harris S, Wilson JR (2011) Simulated multiplexed CCTV: The effects of screen layout and task complexity on user performance and strategies. Secur J 24(4):344–356. https://doi.org/10.1057/sj.2010.7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thiel G (2000) Automatic CCTV surveillance-towards the VIRTUAL GUARD. IEEE Aerosp Electron Syst Mag 15(7):3–9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tickner AH, Poulton EC (1973) Monitoring up to 16 synthetic television pictures showing a great deal of movement. Ergonomics 16(4):381–401

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tickner AH, Poulton EC, Copeman AK, Simmonds DCV (1972) Monitoring 16 television screens showing little movement. Ergonomics 15(3):279–291. https://doi.org/10.1080/00140137208924430

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tremblay S, Lafond D, Chamberland C, Hodgetts HM, Vacho F (2018, January) Gaze-aware cognitive assistant for multiscreen surveillance. In International Conference on Intelligent Human Systems Integration (pp. 230–236). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-73888-8_36

  • Troscianko T, Holmes A, Stillmanô J, Mirmehdi M, Wright D, Wilson A (2004) What happens next? The predictability of natural behavior viewed through CCTV cameras. Perception 33:87–101

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vachon F, Vallières BR, Suss J, Thériault JD, Tremblay S (2016, September) The CSSS microworld: a gateway to understanding and improving CCTV security surveillance. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting (Vol. 60, No. 1, pp. 265–269). Sage CA: Los Angeles, CA: SAGE Publications. https://doi.org/10.1177/1541931213601061

  • Wagenaar P, Boersma K (2012) Zooming in on ‘heterotopia’: CCTV-operator practices at Schiphol Airport. Inform Polity 17:7–20. https://doi.org/10.3233/IP-2012-0263

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wallace E, Diffley C, Baines E, Aldridge J (n.d.) Ergonomic Design Considerations for Public Area CCTV Safety and Security Applications. Home Office, Police Scientific Development Branch, UK

  • Warm J, Parasuraman R, Matthews G (2008) Vigilance requires hard mental work and is stressful. Hum Factors 50(3):433–441

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wells H, Allard T, Wilson P (2006) Crime and CCTV in Australia: Understanding the relationship. Centre of Applied Psychology and Criminology, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences. Bond University, Gold Coast, Australia

    Google Scholar 

  • Welsh BC, Farrington DP (2002) Crime prevention effects of CCTV: A systematic review. Technical Research Report No. 252, Home Office Research, Development and Statistics Directorate, UK

  • Williams D (2007) Effective CCTV and the challenge of constructing legitimate suspicion using remote visual images. J Investig Psych Offender Profil 4:97–107. https://doi.org/10.1002/jip.68

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This research was conducted with the assistance of a grant from the Faculty of Humanities Research Committee of the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. University of the Witwatersrand, 1 Jan Smuts Avenue, Braamfontein, Johannesburg, 2000, South Africa

    Fiona M. Donald

Authors
  1. Fiona M. Donald
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Fiona M. Donald.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Donald, F.M. Information processing challenges and research directions in CCTV surveillance. Cogn Tech Work 21, 487–496 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10111-018-0535-6

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10111-018-0535-6

Keywords

Search

Navigation