Skip to main content
Log in

A survey of the dendritic cell algorithm

  • Regular Paper
  • Published:
Knowledge and Information Systems Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The dendritic cell algorithm (DCA) is a classification algorithm based on the functioning of natural immune dendritic cells. Recently, the DCA has caught the attention of researchers due to its worthy characteristics as it exhibits several interesting and potentially beneficial features for binary classification problems. Although the studies related with the DCA are increasingly becoming popular giving rise to several DCA hybrid algorithms, according to our best knowledge, there is no study summarizing the basic features of these algorithms nor their application areas all in one paper. Therefore, this study aims at summarizing the powerful characteristics of the DCA as well as making a general review of it. In addition, the DCA hybrid algorithms are reviewed and open research areas are discussed for further research.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Agoston E, Smith J (2003) Introduction to evolutionary computing. Springer Science & Business Media, Berlin

    Google Scholar 

  2. Al-Hammadi Y, Aickelin U, Greensmith J (2008) Dca for detecting bots, IEEE world congress on computational intelligence pp 1807–1816

  3. Amaral M (2011a) Fault detection in analog circuits using a fuzzy dendritic cell algorithm. In: Proceedings of the 6th international conference on artificial immune systems, ICARIS, pp 18–21

  4. Amaral M (2011b) Finding danger using fuzzy dendritic cells. In: Proceedings workshop on hybrid intelligent models and applications, HIMA, pp 21–27

  5. Asuncion A, Newman D (2007) Uci machine learning repository. http://archive.ics.uci.edu/ml/

  6. Castillo O, Melin P (2008) Type-2 fuzzy logic theory and applications. Springer, Berlin

    MATH  Google Scholar 

  7. Chelly Z (2014) New danger classification methods in an imprecise framework. Ph.D. thesis, Institut Supérieur de Gestion de Tunis, Tunisia

  8. Chelly Z, Elouedi Z (2010) Fdcm: A fuzzy dendritic cell method. In: Proceedings of the 11th international conference of artificial immune systems, ICARIS, pp 102–115

  9. Chelly Z, Elouedi Z (2011) Further exploration of the fuzzy dendritic cell method. In: Proceedings of the 11th international conference of artificial immune systems, ICARIS, pp 419–432

  10. Chelly Z, Elouedi Z (2012a) Rc-dca: a new feature selection and signal categorization technique for the dendritic cell algorithm based on rough set theory. In: Proceedings of the 11th international conference of artificial immune systems, ICARIS, pp 152–165

  11. Chelly Z, Elouedi Z (2012b) Rst-dca: a dendritic cell algorithm based on rough set theory. In: Proceedings of the 19th international conference on neural information processing, ICONIP, pp 480–487

  12. Chelly Z, Elouedi Z (2013a) Further exploration of the hybrid fuzzy-rough dendritic cell immune classifier. In: Proceedings of the 4th IEEE international conference on E-Health and bioengineering, EHB, pp 1–4

  13. Chelly Z, Elouedi Z (2013b) A fuzzy-rough data pre-processing approach for the dendritic cell classifier. In: Proceedings of the 12th Europeen conference on symbolic and quantitative approaches to reasoning with uncertainty, ECSQARU, pp 109–120

  14. Chelly Z, Elouedi Z (2013c) A new data pre-processing approach for the dendritic cell algorithm based on fuzzy rough set theory. In: Proceedings of the genetic and evolutionary computation conference, GECCO, pp 163–164

  15. Chelly Z, Elouedi Z (2013d) A new hybrid fuzzy-rough dendritic cell immune classifier. In: Proceedings of the 4th international conference on advances in swarm intelligence, ICSI, pp 514–521

  16. Chelly Z, Elouedi Z (2013e) Qr-dca: A new rough data pre-processing approach for the dendritic cell algorithm. In: Proceedings of the 11th international conference on adaptive and natural computing algorithms, ICANNGA, pp 140–150

  17. Chelly Z, Elouedi Z (2013f) Supporting fuzzy-rough sets in the dendritic cell algorithm data pre-processing phase. In: Proceedings of the 20th international conference on neural information processing, ICONIP, pp 164–171

  18. Chelly Z, Elouedi Z (2014a) Further exploration of the hybrid fuzzy-rough dendritic cell immune classifier. In: Proceedings of the genetic and evolutionary computation conference, GECCO, pp 97–104

  19. Chelly Z, Elouedi Z (2014b) Improving the dendritic cell algorithm performance using fuzzy-rough set theory as a pattern discovery technique. In: Proceedings of the 5th International conference on innovations in bio-inspired computing and applications, IBICA, pp 23–32

  20. Chelly Z, Elouedi Z (2014c) A rough information extraction technique for the dendritic cell algorithm within imprecise circumstances. In: Proceedings of the 8th Hellenic conference on artificial intelligence, SETN, pp 43–56

  21. Chelly Z, Elouedi Z (2014d) A study of the data pre-processing module of the dendritic cell evolutionary algorithm. Control, decision and information technologies (CoDIT), 2014 international conference on IEEE, pp 634–639

  22. Chelly Z, Elouedi Z (2015) Hybridization schemes of the fuzzy dendritic cell immune binary classifier based on different fuzzy clustering techniques. N Gener Comput 33(1):1–31

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Chelly Z, Smiti A, Elouedi Z (2012) Coid-fdcm: the fuzzy maintained dendritic cell classification method. In: Proceedings of the 11th international conference on artificial intelligence and soft computing, ICAISC, pp 233–241

  24. Dave R (1993) Robust fuzzy clustering algorithms. In: Proceedings of the 2nd IEEE international conference on fuzzy systems, FUZZ-IEEE, pp 1281–1286

  25. Dubois D, Prade H (1992) Putting rough sets and fuzzy sets together. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht

    Book  Google Scholar 

  26. Dubois D, Prade H (2001) Possibility theory, probability theory and multiple-valued logics: a clarification. Ann Math Artif Intell 32:3566

    Article  MathSciNet  MATH  Google Scholar 

  27. Elberfeld M, Textor J (2009) Efficient algorithms for string-based negative selection. In: Proceedings of the 8th international conference on artificial immune systems, ICARIS, pp 109–121

  28. Elberfeld M, Textor J (2011) Negative selection algorithms on strings with efficient training and linear-time classification. Theor Comput Sci 412:534–542

    Article  MathSciNet  MATH  Google Scholar 

  29. Feng F (2010) Generalized rough fuzzy sets based on soft sets. Soft Comput 14:899–911

    Article  MATH  Google Scholar 

  30. Forrest S, Perelson A, Allen L, CheruKuri R (1994) Self-nonself discrimination in a computer. In: Proceedings of the 1994 IEEE symposium on research in security and privacy, CEC, pp 202–212

  31. Fu H, Li G (2008) Design of an immune-inspired danger theory model based on fuzzy set. In: Proceedings of international symposium on computational intelligence and design, ISCID, pp 133–136

  32. Fu H, Zhang C (2009) Design of a danger signal detecting model based on fuzzy-set. In: Proceedings of 5th international conference on wireless communications, networking and mobile computing, IWCMC, pp 4566–4568

  33. Garthwaite P, Jolliffe I, Jones B (2003) Statistical inference. Oxford University Press, Oxford

    MATH  Google Scholar 

  34. Greensmith J (2007) The dendritic cell algorithm. Ph.D. thesis, University of Nottingham

  35. Greensmith J, Aickelin U (2005) Introducing dendritic cells as a novel immune-inspired algorithm for anomaly detection. In: Proceedings of the 4th international conference on artificial immune systems, ICARIS, pp 153–167

  36. Greensmith J, Aickelin U (2006) Articulation and clarification of the dendritic cell algorithm. In: Proceedings of the 5th internatinal conference on artificial immune systems, ICARIS, pp 404–417

  37. Greensmith J, Aickelin U (2007a) Dendritic cells for syn scan detection. In: Proceedings of the genetic and evolutionary computation conference, GECCO, pp 49–56

  38. Greensmith J, Aickelin U (2007b) Further exploration of the dendritic cell algorithm. In: Proceedings of the 6th international conference on artificial immune systems, ICARIS, pp 142–153

  39. Greensmith J, Aickelin U (2008) The deterministic dendritic cell algorithm, pp 291–302

  40. Greensmith J, Aickelin U, Tedesco G (2010) Information fusion for anomaly detection with the dendritic cell algorithm. Inf Fusion 11:21–34

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. Greensmith J, Feyereisl J, Aickelin U (2008) The dca: some comparison a comparative study between two biologically-inspired algorithms. Evolut Intell 1:85–112

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. Greensmith J, Twycross J, Aickelin U (2006) Dendritic cells for anomaly detection. In: Proceedings of the 2006 congress on evolutionary computation, CEC, pp 664671

  43. Gu F (2011) Theoretical and empirical extensions of the dendritic cell algorithm. Ph.D. thesis, University of Nottingham

  44. Gu F, Feyereisl J, Oates R, Reps J, Greensmith J, Aickelin U (2011) Quiet in class: Classification, noise and the dendritic cell algorithm. In: Proceedings of the 10th internatinal conference on artificial immune systems, ICARIS, pp 173–186

  45. Gu F, Greensmith J, Aickelin U (2008) Further exploration of the dendritic cell algorithm: antigen multiplier and time windows. In: Proceedings of the 7th internatinal conference on artificial immune systems, ICARIS, pp 142–153

  46. Gu F, Greensmith J, Aickelin U (2009) Integrating real-time analysis with the dendritic cell algorithm through segmentation. In: Proceedings of the genetic and evolutionary computation conference, GECCO, pp 1203–1210

  47. Gu F, Greensmith J, Aickelin U (2013) Theoretical formulation and analysis of the deterministic dendritic cell algorithm. BioSystems 412(111):127–135

    Article  Google Scholar 

  48. Gu F, Greensmith J, Oates R, Aickelin U (2009) Pca 4 dca: the application of principal component analysis to the dendritic cell algorithm. In: Proceedings of the 9th annual workshop on computational intelligence, UKCI

  49. Gustafson D, Kessel W (1979) Fuzzy clustering with a fuzzy covariance matrix. In: Proceedings of the IEEE conference on decision and control, CDC’1979, IEEE, pp 761–766

  50. Hai-Long N, Yew-Kwong W, Wee-Keong N (2014) A survey on data stream clustering and classification. In: Knowledge and information systems, pp 1–35

  51. Hofmeyr S (1999) An immunological model of distributed detection and its application to computer security. Ph.D. thesis, University Of New Mexico

  52. Janeway A (1989) Approaching the asymptote? evolution and revolution in immunology. Cold Spring Harb Symp Quant Biol 1:1–13

    Article  Google Scholar 

  53. Janeway C (1992) The immune system evolved to discriminate infectious nonself from noninfectious self immunol. Immunol Today 13:11–16

    Article  Google Scholar 

  54. Jensen R, Shen Q (2001) A rough set-aided system for sorting www bookmarks. In: Proceedings of the 1st Asia-Pacific conference on web intelligence: research and development, WI, pp 95–105

  55. Jensen R, Shen Q (2002) Fuzzy-rough sets for descriptive dimensionality reduction. IEEE international conference on fuzzy systems, FUZZ-IEEE, pp 29–34

  56. Kim J, Bentley P, Wallenta C, Ahmed M, Hailes S (2006) Danger is ubiquitous: detecting malicious activities in sensor networks using the dendritic cell algorithm. In: Proceedings of the 5th internatinal conference on artificial immune systems, ICARIS, pp 390–403

  57. Lay N, Bate I (2008) Improving the reliability of real-time embedded systems using innate immune techniques. Evolut Intell 1:113–132

    Article  Google Scholar 

  58. Liou C, Tai W (2000) Conformality in the self-organization network. Artif Intell 116:265–286

    Article  MathSciNet  MATH  Google Scholar 

  59. Lutz M, Schuler G (2002) Immature, semi-mature and fully mature dendritic cells: which signals induce tolerance or immunity? Trends Immunol 23:445–449

    Article  Google Scholar 

  60. Mandl J, Monteiro J, Vrisekoop N, Germain R (2013) T cell-positive selection uses self-ligand binding strength to optimize repertoire recognition of foreign antigens. Immunity 38:263–274

    Article  Google Scholar 

  61. Matzinger P (2001) The danger model in its historical context. Scand J Immunol 54:4–9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  62. Matzinger P (2002) The danger model: a renewed sense of self. Science 296:301–304

    Article  Google Scholar 

  63. MEng RFO (2010) The suitability of the dendritic cell algorithm for robotic security applications. Ph.D. thesis, University of Nottingham

  64. Mokhtar M, Ran B, Timmis J, Tyrrell A (2009) A modified dendritic cell algorithm for on-line error detection in robotic systems. In: Proceedings of the IEEE congress on evolutionary computation, CEC, pp 2055–2062

  65. Nikhil R, Bezdek C, James C (1995) On cluster validity for the fuzzy c-means model. IEEE Trans Fuzzy Syst 3:370–379

    Article  Google Scholar 

  66. Oates R, Greensmith J, Aickelin U (2007) The application of a dendritic cell algorithm to a robotic classifier. In: Proceedings of the 6th international conference on artificial immune systems, ICARIS, pp 204–215

  67. Oates R, Kendall G, Garibaldi J (2008) Frequency analysis for dendritic cell population tuning. Evolut Intell 1:145–157

    Article  Google Scholar 

  68. Polkowski L (2002) Rough sets: mathematical foundations. Advances in soft computing

  69. Sergio B, Joan C (2001) Oriented principal component analysis for large margin classifiers. Neural Netw 14:1447–1461

    Article  Google Scholar 

  70. Shafer G (1976) A mathematical theory of evidence. Princeton University Press, Princeton

    MATH  Google Scholar 

  71. Smiti A, Elouedi Z (2010) Coid: maintaining case method based on clustering, outliers and internal detection. Softw Eng Artif Intell Netw Parallel Distrib Comput 295:39–52

    Google Scholar 

  72. Smiti A, Elouedi Z (2011) Overview of maintenance for case based reasoning systems. Int J Comput Appl 8:49–56

    Google Scholar 

  73. Stibor T (2006) On the appropriateness of negative selection for anomaly detection and network intrusion detection. Ph.D. thesis, Darmstadt University of Technology

  74. Stibor T, Oates R, Kendall G, Garibaldi J (2009) Geometrical insights into the dendritic cell algorithm. In: Proceedings of the genetic and evolutionary computation conference, GECCO, pp 1275–1282

  75. Stibor T, Timmis J (2007) Comments on real-valued negative selection versus real-valued positive selection and one-class svm. In: Proceedings of the IEEE congress on evolutionary computation, CEC, pp 3727–3734

  76. Stibor T, Timmis J, Eckert C (2005) A comparative study of real-valued negative selection to statistical anomaly detection techniques. In: Proceedings of the 4th international conference on artificial immune systems, ICARIS, pp 262–275

  77. Timmis J (2007) Artificial immune systems—today and tomorrow. Nat Comput 6:1–18

    Article  MathSciNet  MATH  Google Scholar 

  78. Wang W, Zhang C, Zhang Q (2013) An anomaly detection model based on cloud model and danger theory. In: Proceedings of the international standard conference on trustworthy computing and services, ISCTCS, pp 115–122

  79. Wr F, Couch J, Wehner N (1976) Prostatic antibacterial factor identity and significance. Urology 7:16977

    Google Scholar 

  80. Yu S, Dasgupta D (2008) Conserved self pattern recognition algorithm. In: Proceedings of the 7th internatinal conference on artificial immune systems, ICARIS, pp 279–290

  81. Yuan S, Zhang H (2014) Result-controllable dendritic cell algorithm. Intell Comput Theory 8588:196–205

  82. Zheng J, Chen Y, Zhang W (2010) A survey of artificial immune applications. Artif Intell Rev 34:19–34

    Article  Google Scholar 

  83. Zimmermann H (2001) Fuzzy set theory and its applications, 4th edn. Kluwer, Alphen aan den Rijn

    Book  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Zeineb Chelly.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Chelly, Z., Elouedi, Z. A survey of the dendritic cell algorithm. Knowl Inf Syst 48, 505–535 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10115-015-0891-y

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10115-015-0891-y

Keywords

Navigation