Skip to main content
Log in

The effects of metronomic pendular adjustment versus tap-tempo input on the stability and accuracy of tempo perception

  • Research Report
  • Published:
Cognitive Processing Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This study explores tempo stability and accuracy while comparing two subject-response modes: the traditional metronomic pendular adjustment task versus tap-tempo input. Experiment 1 questioned if a single correct tempo measurement consistently emerges from repeated listenings, and if subject-response mode affects tempo stability and accuracy. Experiment 2 assessed incremental improvement between two repeated sessions, and questioned the incidence of self-pacing or congruent effects of potential delays on tempo responses. While single-session studies have shown that listeners find some tempos more enjoyable, can notice discrete differences in pace, and can remember rhythmic speed over prolonged periods of time, the current study employs a multiple-session format focusing on two diametrically opposed subject-response modes. The findings show that tempo responses by listeners without formal music training were consistent across listening sessions, and that responses from tap-tempo input were significantly more stable and accurate than responses from metronomic pendular adjustment tasks.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Andress BL, Heimann HM, Rinehart CA, Talbert EG (1979) Music in early childhood. MENC, Reston

    Google Scholar 

  • Behne KE (1972) Der Einfluß des Tempos auf die Beurteilung von Musik (The influence of tempo on the judgment of music). Arno Volk, Köln

  • Boltz MG (1998) Tempo discrimination of musical patterns: effects due to pitch and rhythmic structure. Percept Psychophys 60:1357–1375

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bowen JA (1999) Finding the music in musicology: performance history and musical works. In: Cook N, Everest M (eds) Rethinking music, chap 19. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 424–451

  • Brodsky W (2002) The effects of music tempo on simulated driving performance and vehicular control. Transport Res F 4:219–241

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown P (1979) An enquiry into the origins and nature of tempo behaviour. Psychol Music 7:19–35

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dowling WJ, Harwood DL (1986) Rhythm and the perception of time. In: Music cognition, chap 7. Academic, Orlando, pp 178–201

  • Drake C, Botte MC (1993) Tempo sensitivity in auditory sequences: evidence for a multiple-look model. Percept Psychophys 54:277–286

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Drake C, Penel A, Bigand E, Stefan L (1997) Tapping in time with musical and mechanical sequences. In: Gabrielsson A (ed) Proceedings of the 3rd Triennial ESCOM Conference. Department of Psychology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, pp 286–291

  • Drake C, Penel A, Bigand E (2000) Why musicians tap slower than nonmusicians. In: Desain P, Windsor L (eds) Rhythm perception and production. Swets and Zeitlinger, Lisse, pp 245–248

    Google Scholar 

  • Ellis MC (1991) Thresholds for detecting tempo change. Psychol Music 19:164–169

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Farnsworth P, Block H, Waterman W (1934) Absolute tempo. J Gen Psychol 10:230–233

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Franek M, Mates J (1997) Tempo modulation task. In: Gabrielsson A (ed) Proceedings of the 3rd Triennial ESCOM Conference. Department of Psychology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, pp 298–301

  • Franek M, Mates J, Nartova M (1998) Doubling and halving of tempo: factors influencing preciseness of the performance. In: Yi SW (ed) Proceedings of the 5th international conference on music perception and cognition. Seoul National University, Seoul, pp 359–363

  • Franek M, Mates J, Nartova M (2000) Tempo change: timing of simple temporal ratios. In: Desain P, Windsor L (eds) Rhythm perception and production. Swets and Zeitlinger, Lisse, pp 143–156

    Google Scholar 

  • Frischeisen-Kohler I (1933) The personal tempo and its inheritance. Character Pers 1:301–313

    Google Scholar 

  • Gabrielsson A (1988) Timing in music performance and its relationship to music experience. In: Sloboda JA (ed) Generative processes of music: the psychology of performance, improvisation, and composition. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 27–31

    Google Scholar 

  • Geringer JM (1987) Pitch and tempo preferences in recorded popular music. In: Madsen CK, Pricket CA (eds) Applications of research in music behavior. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa, pp 204–212

    Google Scholar 

  • Geringer JM, Madsen CK (1984) Pitch and tempo discrimination in recorded orchestral music among musicians and non-musicians. J Res Music Educ 3:195–204

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Greenberg M (1979) Your children need music. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs

    Google Scholar 

  • Halpern AR (1988) Perceived and imagined tempos of familiar songs. Music Percept 6:193–202

    Google Scholar 

  • Handel S (1993) The effect of tempo and tone duration on rhythmic discrimination. Percept Psychophys 54:370–382

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hargreaves DJ (1986) The developmental psychology of music. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • Harrison R (1941) Personal tempo. J Gen Psychol 24, 25:343–379

    Google Scholar 

  • Hevner K (1937) The affective value of pitch and tempo in music. Am J Psychol 49:621–630

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hindemith P (1949) Elementary training for musicians, 2nd revised edn. Schott, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Hirsch IJ, Bilger RC, Deathrage BH (1956) The effect of auditory and visual background on apparent duration. Am J Psychol 69:561–574

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Honing H (2001) From time to time: the representation of timing and tempo. Comput Music J 25:50–61

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson P (2002) The legacy of recordings, chap 14. In: Rink J (ed) Musical performance: a guide to understanding. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 197–212

  • Jones MR, Yee W (1997) Sensitivity to time change: the role of context and skill. J Exp Psychol P 23:693–709

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Karpinski GS (2000) Aural skills acquisition. Oxford University Press, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • Kellaris JJ, Altsech MB (1992) The experience of time as a function of musical loudness and gender of listener. Adv Consumer Res 19:725–729

    Google Scholar 

  • Kellaris JJ, Rice RC (1993) The influence of tempo, loudness, and gender on listening responses to music. Psychol Market 10:15–29

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kellaris JJ, Mantel SP, Altsech MB (1996) Decibels, disposition and duration: impact of musical loudness and internal states on tempo perceptions. Adv Consumer Res 23:498–503

    Google Scholar 

  • Kuhn TL (1974) Discrimination of modulated beat tempo by professional musicians. J Res Music Educ 22:270–277

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kuhn TL (1987) The effect of tempo, meter, and melodic complexity on the perception of tempo. In: Madsen CK, Pricket CA (eds) Applications of research in music behavior. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa, pp 165–174

    Google Scholar 

  • Lapidaki E (2000) Stability of tempo perception in music listening. Music Educ Res 2:25–44

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lapidaki E, Webster PR (1991) Consistency of tempo judgments when listening to music of different styles. Psychomusicology 10:19–30

    Google Scholar 

  • LeBlanc A (1981) Effects of style, tempo, and performing medium on children’s preference. J Res Music Educ 29:143–156

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leblanc A, McCrary J (1983) Effect of tempo on children’s music preference. J Res Music Educ 31:283–294

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Levitin DJ, Cook PR (1996) Memory for musical tempo: additional evidence that auditory memory is absolute. Percept Psychophys 58:927–935

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Madsen CK (1979) Modulated beat discrimination among musicians and nonmusicians. J Res Music Educ 27:57–67

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Malbran S (2002) Tapping in time: a longitudinal study at the ages of three to five years. Bull Counc Res Music Educ 153(4):71–77

    Google Scholar 

  • McAuley JD, Semple P (1999) The effect of tempo and musical experience on perceived beat. Aust J Psychol 51:176–187

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Povel DJ (1981) The internal representation of simple temporal patterns. J Exp Psychol P 7:3–18

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Reed R (2002) How precise and stable is our conception of tempo in music. In: Stevens C, Burnham D, McPherson G, Schuber E, Renwick J (eds) Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Music perception and cognition. Casual Productions, Adelaide, pp 584–587

  • Rimoldi HJA (1951) Personal tempo. J Abnorm Soc Psychol 46:280–303

    Google Scholar 

  • Scholes PA (1972) The Oxford companion to music (10th revised edition, edited by JO Ward). Oxford University Press, London

  • Shaffer L (1982) Rhythm and timing skill. Psychol Rev 89:109–121

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sims WL (1987) Effect of tempo on music preference of preschool through fourth-grade children. In: Madsen CK, Pricket CA (eds) Applications of research in music behavior. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa, pp 15–25

    Google Scholar 

  • Starer R (1969) Rhythmic training. MCA Music, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Temperley D (2001) The cognition of basic musical structures. MIT Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • Vos PG, Van Assen MA, Franek M (1997) Perceived tempo change is dependent on base tempo and direction of change: evidence for a generalized version of Schulze’s (1978) internal beat model. Psychol Res 59:240–247

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wallin J (1911a) Experimental studies of rhythm and time (Part I). Psychol Rev 18:100–133

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wallin J (1911b) Experimental studies of rhythm and time (Part II). Psychol Rev 18:202–222

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang CC, Salzberg RS (1984) Discrimination of modulated music tempo by string students. J Res Music Educ 32:123–131

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wapnick J (1980) The perception of musical and metronomic tempo change in musicians. Psychol Music 8:3–12

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wapnick J (1987) A comparison of tempo selections by professional editors, pianists, and harpsichordists in Bach’s Well-Tempered Clavier, Book I. In: Madsen CK, Pricket CA (eds) Applications of research in music behavior. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa, pp 190–212

    Google Scholar 

  • Wohlschlager A, Koch R (2000) Synchronization error: an error in time perception. In: Desain P, Windsor L (eds) Rhythm perception and production. Swets and Zeitlinger, Lisse, pp 115–128

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolfe DE (1983) The effect of music loudness on task performance and self report of college-aged students. J Res Music Educ 31:191–201

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Woodrow H (1951) Time perception. In: Stevens SS (ed) Handbook of experimental psychology. Wiley, New York, pp 1224–1236

    Google Scholar 

  • Yarbrough C (1987) The effect of musical excerpts on tempo discriminations and preferences of musicians and nonmusicians. In: Madsen CK, Pricket CA (eds) Applications of research in music behavior. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa, pp 175–189

    Google Scholar 

  • Yoner S, Yamda M (1998) Temporal control in repetitive tapping of simple rhythmic patterns. In: Yi SW (ed) Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Music perception and cognition. Seoul National University, Seoul, pp 139–144

  • Zimmerman MP (1971) Musical characteristics of children. MENC, Reston

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Warren Brodsky.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Brodsky, W. The effects of metronomic pendular adjustment versus tap-tempo input on the stability and accuracy of tempo perception. Cogn Process 6, 117–127 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-004-0037-8

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-004-0037-8

Keywords

Navigation