Abstract
This research was aimed at summarizing experimental evidence regarding computational thinking and programming conducted in early childhood education in terms of the variables of plugged-in versus unplugged, age, and gender. For this purpose, the WoS, Scopus, and Eric databases were scanned, and studies determined to be within the scope of the systematic scanning criteria were selected for review. In the current study findings, it was shown that age was an important factor in learning computational thinking in early childhood. In addition, it was found that girls and boys performed similarly in programming and computational thinking. Finally, although there was concrete evidence that both plugged-in and unplugged applications improved children's computational thinking skills, it appeared that unplugged applications were one step ahead, considering the power of having concrete experiences.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
American Academy of Pediatrics. (2003). Prevention of pediatric overweight and obesity: Policy statement. Pediatrics, 112(2), 424–430. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.112.2.424
Angeli, C., & Valanides, N. (2020). Developing young children’s computational thinking with educational robotics: An interaction effect between gender and scaffolding strategy. Computers in Human Behavior, 105, 105954.
Appel, M., Kronberger, N., & Aronson, J. (2011). Stereotype threat impairs ability building: Effects on test preparation among women in science and technology. European Journal of Social Psychology, 41, 904–913.
Arfé, B., Vardanega, T., Montuori, C., & Lavanga, M. (2019). Coding in primary grades boosts children’s executive functions. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 2713.
Atmatzidou, S., & Demetriadis, S. (2016). Advancing students’ computational thinking skills through educational robotics: A study on age and gender relevant differences. Robotics & Autonomous Systems, 75, 661–670.
Barr, D., Harrison, J., & Conery, L. (2011). Computational thinking: A digital age skill for everyone. Learning and Leading with Technology, 38(6), 20–23.
Bers, M. U. (2008). Blocks to robots: Learning with technology in the early childhood classroom. Teacher’s College Press.
Bers, M. U., & Horn, M. (2010). Tangible programming in early childhood: Revisiting developmental assumptions through new technologies. In I. R. Berson & M. J. Berson (Eds.), High-tech tots: Childhood in a digital world (pp. 49–70). Information Age Publishing.
Bers, M. U. (2010). The TangibleK robotics program: Applied computational thinking for young children. Early Childhood Research & Practice, 12(2), 1–20. https://www.ecrp.uiuc.eduv12n2/bers.html
Bers, M. U. (2018a). Coding and computational thinking in early childhood: The impact of ScratchJr in Europe. European Journal of STEM Education, 3(3), 8. https://doi.org/10.20897/ejsteme/3868
Bers, M. U. (2018b). Coding as a playground: Programming and computational thinking in the early childhood classroom. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315398945
Bers, M. U., & Portsmore, M. (2005). Teaching partnerships: Early childhood and engineering student teaching math and science through robotics. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 14(1), 59–73.
Bers, M. U., Flannery, L., Kazakoff, E. R., & Sullivan, A. (2014). Computational thinking and tinkering: Exploration of an early childhood robotics curriculum. Computers & Education, 72, 145–157.
Bers, M. U., González-González, C., & Armas-Torres, M. B. (2019). Coding as a playground: Promoting positive learning experiences in childhood classrooms. Computers & Education, 138, 130–145.
Botički, I., Pivalica, D., & Seow, P. (2018, June 14-16). The use of computational thinking concepts in early primary school. [Conference Presentation]. International Conference on Computational Thinking Education. Hong Kong. https://www.eduhk.hk/cte2018/https://bib.irb.hr/datoteka/930955.CTE2018-Boticki_Pivalica_Seow_final_camera_ready.pdf
Campbell, C., & Walsh, C. (2017). Introducing the “new” digital literacy of coding in the early years. Practical Literacy: THe Early and Primary Years, 22(3), 10.
Çetin, M., & Demircan, H. Ö. (2018). Empowering technology and engineering for STEM education through programming robots: A systematic literature review. Early Child Development and Care, 190(9), 1323–1335.
Compton-Lilly, C., Rogers, R., & Lewis, T. (2012). Analyzing epistemological considerations related to diversity: An integrative critical literature review of family literacy scholarship. Reading Research Quarterly, 47(1), 33–60.
Davis, J., Mengersen, K., Bennett, S., & Mazerolle, L. (2014). Viewing systematic reviews and meta-analysis in social research through different lenses. SpringerPlus, 3(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1186/2193-1801-3-511
Di Lieto, M. C., Inguaggiato, E., Castro, E., Cecchi, F., Cioni, G., Dell’Omo, M., & Dario, P. (2017). Educational robotics intervention on executive functions in preschool children: A pilot study. Computers in Human Behavior, 71, 16–23.
Doube, W., & Lang, C. (2012). Gender and stereotypes in motivation to study computer programming for careers in multimedia. Computer Science Education, 22, 63–78.
Du, J., & Wimmer, H. (2019). Hour of code: A study of gender differences in computing. Information Systems Education Journal, 17(4), 91–100.
Elkin, M., Sullivan, A., & Bers, M. U. (2014). Implementing a robotics curriculum in an early childhood Montessori classroom. Journal of Information Technology Education: Innovations in Practice, 13, 153–169.
Elkin, M., Sullivan, A., & Bers, M. U. (2016). Programming with the KIBO robotics kit in preschool classrooms. Computers in the Schools, 33(3), 169–186.
Fessakis, G., Gouli, E., & Mavroudi, E. (2013). Problem solving by 5–6 years old kindergarten children in a computer programming environment: A case study. Computers & Education, 63, 87–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2012.11.016
Flannery, L. P., & Bers, M. U. (2013). Let’s dance the “robot hokey-pokey!” children’s programming approaches and achievement throughout early cognitive development. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 46(1), 81–101.
Flórez, B. F., Casallas, R., Hernández, M., Reyes, A., Restrepo, S., & Danies, G. (2017). Changing a generation’s way of thinking: Teaching computational thinking through programming. Review of Educational Research, 87(4), 834–860.
Fujita, M., Kitano, H., & Doi, T. T. (2000). Robot entertainment. In A. Druin & J. Hendler (Eds.), Robots for kids: Exploring new technologies for learning (pp. 37–72). Morgan Kaufmann Publishers.
Muñoz-Repiso, A. G. V., & Caballero-González, Y. A. (2019). Robotics to develop computational thinking in early childhood education. Comunicar. Media Education Research Journal, 27(59), 63–72.
Geist, E. (2016). Robots, programming and coding, Oh my! Childhood Education, 92(4), 298–304. https://doi.org/10.1080/00094056.2016.1208008
Gordon, M., Rivera, E., Ackermann, E., & Breazeal, C. (2015). Designing a relational social robot toolkit for preschool children to explore computational concepts. Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on Interaction Design and Children (IDC '15). 355–358. https://doi.org/10.1145/2771839.2771915
Grover, S., & Pea, R. (2013). Computational thinking in K-12: A review of the state of the field. Educational Researcher, 42(1), 38–43.
Grover, S., & Pea, R. (2018). Computational thinking: A competency whose time has come. In S. Sentance, S. Carsten, & E. Barendsen (Eds.), Computer science education: Perspectives on teaching and learning. Bloomsbury.
Güneş, G., & Şahin, V. (2020). Preschoolers’ thoughts on the concept of time. The Journal of Genetic Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221325.2020.1753645
Highfield, K. (2010). Robotic toys as a catalyst for mathematical problem solving. Australian Primary Mathematics Classroom, 15(2), 22–27.
Highfield, K. & Mulligan, J. (2008, July 6-13). Young children's engagement with technological tools: the impact on mathematics learning. [Conference Presentation]. International Congress of Mathematics Education, Mexico. https://www.researchers.mq.edu.au/en/publications/young-childrens-engagement-with-technological-tools-the-impact-on
Highfield, K., & Mulligan, J. (2009, July 19-24). Young children's embodied action in problem-solving tasks using robotic toys. [Conference presentation]. Conference of the International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education Thessaloniki, Greece https://www.researchers.mq.edu.au/en/publications/young-childrens-embodied-action-in-problem-solving-tasks-using-ro
Horn, M. S. (2018). Tangible interaction and cultural forms: Supporting learning in informal environments. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 27(4), 632–665.
Horn, M., Crouser, R., & Bers, M. U. (2011). Tangible interaction and learning: The case for a hybrid approach. Personal and Ubiquitous Computing, 16(4), 379–389. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00779-011-0404-2 Special Issue on Tangibles and Children.
International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE). (2016). ISTE standards for students. Retrieved June 7, 2020 from https://www.iste.org/standards/for-students
Kalelioğlu, F. (2015). A new way of teaching programming skills to K-12 students: Code.org. Computers in Human Behavior, 52, 200–210.
Kazakoff, E. R., & Bers, M. U. (2014). Put your robot in, put your robot out: Sequencing through programming robots in early childhood. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 50(4), 553–573.
Kazakoff, E. R., Sullivan, A., & Bers, M. U. (2013). The effect of a classroom-based intensive robotics and programming workshop on sequencing ability in early childhood. Early Childhood Education Journal, 41(4), 245–255.
Kazakoff, E., & Bers, M. (2012). Programming in a robotics context in the pre-primary classroom: The impact on sequencing skills. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 21(4), 371–391.
Kelleher, C., Paushc, R., & Kiesler, S. (2007). Storytelling Alice motivates middle school girls to learn computer programming. Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, 1455–1464. https://doi.org/10.1145/1240624.1240844
Kitchenham, B., Brereton, O. P., Budgen, D., Turner, M., Bailey, J., & Linkman, S. (2009). Systematic literature reviews in software engineering–a systematic literature review. Information and Software Technology, 51(1), 7–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infsof.2010.03.006
Komis, V., & Misirli, A. (2016). The environments of educational robotics in early childhood education: Towards a didactical analysis. Educational Journal of the University of Patras UNESCO Chair, 3(2), 238–246.
Larson, L. C., & Miller, T. N. (2011). 21st century skills: Prepare students for the future. Kappa Delta Pi Record, 47(3), 121–123.
Lee, J. M., Jung, Y. J., & Park, H. K. (2017). Gender differences in computational thinking, creativity, and academic interest on elementary SW education. Journal of the Korean Association of Information Education, 21(4), 381–391.
Lee, J., & Junoh, J. (2019). Implementing unplugged coding activities in early childhood classrooms. Early Childhood Education Journal, 47(6), 709–716.
Levy, S. T., & Mioduser, D. (2008). Does it “want” or “was it programmed to…”? Kindergarten children’s explanations of an autonomous robot’s adaptive functioning. International Journal of Technology and Design Education, 18(4), 337–359.
Levy, S. T., & Mioduser, D. (2010). Approaching complexity through planful play: Kindergarten children’s strategies in constructing an autonomous robot’s behavior. International Journal of Computers for Mathematical Learning, 15(1), 21–43.
Manches, A., & Plowman, L. (2017). Computing education in children’s early years: A call for debate. British Journal of Educational Technology, 48(1), 191–201.
Martinez, C., Gomez, M. J., & Benotti, L. (2015). A comparison of preschool and elementary school children learning computer science concepts through a multilanguage robot programming platform. Proceedings of the 2015 ACM Conference on Innovation and Technology in Computer Science Education, 159–164. https://doi.org/10.1145/2729094.2742599
McGlone, M. S. (2006). Stereotype threat and the gender gap in political knowledge. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 30, 392–398.
Messer, D., Thomas, L., Holliman, A., & Kucirkova, N. (2018). Evaluating the effectiveness of an educational programming intervention on children’s mathematics skills, spatial awareness and working memory. Education and Information Technologies, 23(6), 2879–2888.
Metin, S. (2020). Activity-based unplugged coding during the preschool period. International Journal of Technology and Design Education. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10798-020-09616-8
Metz, S. S. (2007). Attracting the engineering of 2020 today. In R. Burke, M. Mattis, & E. Elgar (Eds.), Women and minorities in science, technology, engineering and mathematics: Upping the numbers (pp. 184–209). Edward Elgar Publishing.
Mioduser, D., & Levy, S. T. (2010). Making sense by building sense: Kindergarten children’s construction and understanding of adaptive robot behaviors. International Journal of Computers for Mathematical Learning, 15(2), 99–127.
Mioduser, D., Levy, S. T., & Talis, V. (2009). Episodes to scripts to rules: Concrete-abstractions in kindergarten children’s explanations of a robot’s behavior. International Journal of Technology and Design Education, 19(1), 15–36.
Misirli A., Komis V. (2014). Robotics and programming concepts in early childhood education: A conceptual framework for designing educational scenarios. Karagiannidis C., Politis P., Karasavvidis I. (eds) Research on e-Learning and ICT in Education. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-6501-0_8
Montemayor, J., Druin, A., & Hendler, J. (2000). PETS: A personal electronic teller of stories. In A. Druin & J. Hendler (Eds.), Robots for kids: Exploring new technologies for learning (pp. 73–110). Morgan Kaufmann Publishers.
Morgado, L., Cruz, M., & Kahn, K. (2010). Preschool cookbook of computer programming topics. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology. https://doi.org/10.14742/ajet.1077
Nam, K. W., Kim, H. J., & Lee, S. (2019). Connecting plans to action: The effects of a card-coded robotics curriculum and activities on Korean kindergartners. The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, 28(5), 387–397.
Newman, M., & Gough, D. (2020). Systematic reviews in educational research methodology, perspectives, and application. In O. Zawacki-Richter, M. Kerres, S. Bedenlier, M. Bond, & K. Buntins (Eds.), Systematic reviews in educational research (pp. 3–22). Springer.
Nouri, J., Zhang, L., Mannila, L., & Norén, E. (2020). Development of computational thinking, digital competence and 21st century skills when learning programming in K-9. Education Inquiry, 11(1), 1–17.
Olgan, R. (2015). Influences on Turkish early childhood teachers’ science teaching practices and the science content covered in the early years. Early Child Development and Care, 185(6), 926–942.
Papadakis, S., Kalogiannakis, M., & Zaranis, N. (2016). Developing fundamental programming concepts and computational thinking with ScratchJr in preschool education: A case study. International Journal of Mobile Learning and Organisation, 10(3), 187–202.
Papert, S. (1993). Mindstorms-children, computers, and powerful ideas (2nd ed.). Basic Books.
Piaget, J. (1973). The child and reality: Problems of genetic psychology. Grossman.
Portelance, D. J., Strawhacker, A. L., & Bers, M. U. (2016). Constructing the ScratchJr programming language in the early childhood classroom. International Journal of Technology and Design Education, 26(4), 489–504.
Pugnali, A., Sullivan, A., & Bers, M. U. (2017). The impact of user interface on young children’s computational thinking. Journal of Information Technology Education: Innovations in Practice, 16, 171–193.
Reilly, M. (2013). The kindergarten coders. New Scientist, 2927, 21–22.
Resnick, M., Martin, F., Sargent, R., & Silverman, B. (1996). Programmable bricks: Toys to think with. IBM Systems Journal, 35(3–4), 443–452.
Reynolds, A. J., Temple, J. A., Ou, S. R., Arteaga, I. A., & White, B. A. B. (2011). School-based early childhood education and age-28 well-being: Effects by timing, dosage, and subgroups. Science, 333(6040), 360–364.
Rodriguez, B., Kennicutt, S., Rader, C., & Camp, T. (2017). Assessing computational thinking in CS unplugged activities. Proceedings of the 2017 ACM SIGCSE Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education, 501–506. https://doi.org/10.1145/3017680.3017779
Rogers, C., & Portsmore, M. (2004). Bringing engineering to elementary school. Journal of STEM Education, 5(3/4), 17–28.
Román-González, M., Perez-González, J. C., & Jimenez-Fernández, C. (2017). Which cognitive abilities underlie computational thinking? Criterion validity of the computational thinking test. Computers in Human Behavior, 72, 678–691.
Saxena, A., Lo, C. K., Hew, K. F., & Wong, G. K. W. (2020). Designing unplugged and plugged activities to cultivate computational thinking: An exploratory study in early childhood education. The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, 29(1), 55–66.
Selby, C. C. (2012). Promoting computational thinking with programming. Proceedings of the 7th Workshop in Primary and Secondary Computing Education, 74–77. https://doi.org/10.1145/2481449.2481466
Shonkoff, J. P., Duncan, G. J., Fisher, P. A., Magnuson, K., & Raver, C. (2011). Building the brain’s “air traffic control” system: How early experiences shape the development of executive function (Working Paper No. 11). Retrieved June 15, 2020 from https://www.developingchild.harvard.edu/resources/building-the-brains-air-traffic-control-system-how-early-experiences-shape-the-development-of-executive-function/
So, H. J., Kim, D., & Ryoo, D. (2020). Trajectories of developing computational thinking competencies: Case portraits of Korean gifted girls. The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, 29(1), 85–100.
Strawhacker, A., & Bers, M. U. (2015). “I want my robot to look for food”: Comparing Kindergartner’s programming comprehension using tangible, graphic, and hybrid user interfaces. International Journal of Technology and Design Education, 25(3), 293–319.
Sullivan, A., & Bers, M. U. (2018a). The impact of teacher gender on girls’ performance on programming tasks in early elementary school. Journal of Information Technology Education: Innovations in Practice, 17(1), 153–162.
Sullivan, A., & Bers, M. U. (2013). Gender differences in kindergarteners’ robotics and programming achievement. International Journal of Technology and Design Education, 23(3), 691–702.
Sullivan, A., & Bers, M. U. (2016). Robotics in the early childhood classroom: Learning outcomes from an 8-week robotics curriculum in pre-kindergarten through second grade. International Journal of Technology and Design Education, 26(1), 3–20.
Sullivan, A., & Bers, M. U. (2018b). Dancing robots: Integrating art, music, and robotics in Singapore’s early childhood centers. International Journal of Technology and Design Education, 28(2), 325–346.
Sullivan, A., & Bers, M. U. (2019). Computer science education in early childhood: The case of ScratchJr. Journal of Information Technology Education: Innovations in Practice, 18, 113–138.
Sullivan, A., Elkin, M., & Bers, M. U. (2015). KIBO robot demo: Engaging young children in programming and engineering. Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on Interaction Design and Children, 418–421. https://doi.org/10.1145/2771839.2771868
Tiedemann, J. (2000). Parents’ gender stereotypes and teachers’ beliefs as predictors of children’s concept of their mathematical ability in elementary school. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92(1), 144–151.
Toh, L. P. E., Causo, A., Tzuo, P. W., Chen, I. M., & Yeo, S. H. (2016). A review on the use of robots in education and young children. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 19(2), 148–163.
Wing, J. M. (2006). Computational thinking. Communications of the ACM, 49(3), 33–35.
Wing, J. M. (2008). Computational thinking and thinking about computing. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society a: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, 366(1881), 3717–3725.
Wohlin, C. (2014). Guidelines for snowballing in systematic literature studies and a replication in software engineering. Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Evaluation and Assessment in Software Engineering, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1145/2601248.2601268
Wyeth, P., & Wyeth, G. (2008). Robot building for preschoolers. In R. Goevel, J. Siekmann, & W. Wahlster (Eds.), Lecture notes in artificial intelligence (pp. 124–135). Springer.
Yadav, A., Zhou, N., Mayfield, C., Hambrusch, S., & Korb, J. T. (2011). Introducing computational thinking in education courses. Proceedings of the 42nd ACM technical Symposium on Computer Science Education, 465–470. https://doi.org/10.1145/1953163.1953297
Yücel, Y., & Rızvanoğlu, K. (2019). Battling gender stereotypes: A user study of a code-learning game, “Code Combat”, with middle school children. Computers in Human Behavior, 99, 352–365.
Zan, B. (2016). Introduction: Why STEM? Why early childhood? Why now? STEM learning with young children: Inquiry teaching with ramps and pathways (pp. 1–9). Teachers College Press.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Bati, K. A systematic literature review regarding computational thinking and programming in early childhood education. Educ Inf Technol 27, 2059–2082 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-021-10700-2
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-021-10700-2