An experimental study of dialogue-based communication for dynamic human-computer task allocation

doi:10.1016/S0020-7373(85)80061-4

International Journal of Man-Machine Studies

Volume 23, Issue 6, December 1985, Pages 605-621

https://doi.org/10.1016/S0020-7373(85)80061-4 Get rights and content

The allocation of tasks between human and computer and the merits of a dynamic approach to this allocation are discussed. Dynamic task allocation requires efficient human-computer communication. This communication may be accomplished in an implicit, model-based, or explicit, dialogue-based, manner. A framework for the study of dialogue-based human-computer communication is introduced and a study exemplifying the use of the framework is presented. This study investigated the effects of two input media and four task allocation strategies on the performance of a human-computer system. The task environment represented a simplified version of an air traffic control scenario wherein computer aid could be evoked by the human controller to accomplish task sharing between the human and the computer. Dedicated function keys proved to be a more effective input medium than the standard Sholes QWERTY keyboard in terms of both objective performance and subjective preference measures. Of the task allocation strategies considered, spatial assignment, contingency-based assignment, and assignment by designation achieved the highest levels of overall system performance, while temporal assignment achieved a significantly lower level of performance. Subjective ratings indicated an overall preference for assignment by designation, followed by spatial assignment and contingency-based assignment. Spatial assignment was the most powerful, but the least specific strategy. Assignment by designation was the least powerful strategy, but the most specific and most flexible strategy.

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Heuristic-based method for conflict discovery of shared control between humans and autonomous systems - A driving automation case study
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Citation Excerpt :
The allocation decision considers the characteristics of the humans and autonomous systems in terms of the limitations of their abilities, or the interruptibility or recoverability of tasks when they can be stopped or rectified, respectively. The allocation decision can be managed through different modes [19,69–74]: manual mode when the allocation decision is made by humans, automatic mode when it is made by the autonomous system, passive mode when it is done on-demand, or active mode when human and autonomous systems run in parallel; static mode when it is predetermined or dynamic mode when tasks are allocated according to variable characteristics of humans or autonomous systems; permanent mode when tasks are not interruptible or recoverable, or preemptive mode when they can be reallocated to another decision-maker; negotiated mode when exchanges can be done to optimize it or imposed mode when one decision-maker determines the task allocation; etc. The interaction process aims to control or supervise these allocation decision modes and to allow exchanges between humans and machines.
The paper proposes a heuristic-based prospective method to discover possible conflicts of shared control between humans and autonomous systems. This method adapts the triplet Competence-Availability-Possibility-to-act (CAP) that represents the autonomy characteristics of decision-makers such as humans or autonomous systems. The CAP-based autonomy is decomposed into several scenarios of shared control in a workspace or between workspaces. Conflicting decisions between humans and autonomous systems are conflicts of autonomy relating to competence, availability, or possibility to act and are determined by applying heuristics adapted from deductive, inductive, abductive, and counterfactual reasoning principles. This heuristic-based method comprises four main steps: verification of shared control, identification of discovery parameters, discovery of possible conflicting decisions, and validation of these conflicts. It was applied to a driving automation case study involving two autonomous systems: Lane Keeping Assist (LKA) and Automated Cruise Control (ACC). The conflicts of autonomy identified determine possible confusions between the reasoning of a driver and that of an autonomous system, sometimes resulting in dangerous situations. These were validated and analyzed in two ways by drivers with at least two years of driving experience: during an investigation to obtain qualitative feedback from 43 drivers and during a tutorial on human reliability assessment involving 17 people. The results demonstrate the advantage of the heuristic-based method to detect possible conflicting decisions or sources of conflicts between humans and machines. The approach proposed will consequently be of assistance in the design of shared control processes between humans and autonomous systems through the implementation of technical learning or pedagogical abilities, the improvement of alarm systems to control human attention or avoid confusion between the intentions of humans and machines, or the development of training programs or driving lessons to increase user awareness of such conflicts.
System perspectives on task allocanon and operator work
2003, IFAC Proceedings Volumes (IFAC-PapersOnline)
One of the main concerns in engineering has been to increase system performance by the use of automation and information technology. This paper addresses the concept of system task allocation and the role of the machine operator by exploring how common models for task allocation handle the complex setting of manufacturing systems. Conclusions are that we are headed towards more general roles for the operators.
KOMPASS: A method for complementary function allocation in automated work systems
2000, International Journal of Human Computer Studies
A method supporting complementary function allocation in automated work systems called KOMPASS will be presented. KOMPASS supports interdisciplinary design teams in deciding about function allocation in automated systems, taking into account the need for an integral consideration of people-related, technological and organizational factors in the design of work systems in order to satisfy the demands for effectiveness and safety of the overall work system as well as for motivating jobs for the human operators. A set of empirically tested criteria for the evaluation of the complementarity of system design forms the basis of guidelines for the analysis of work systems, individual tasks and human–machine systems as well as for a heuristic for system design. The method is described, including a practical example of an automation project to which it was applied.
Use of neural networks to achieve dynamic task allocation: A flexible manufacturing system example
1999, International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics
To attain optimum performance of the automated system, task allocation between human and computer becomes very important. However, a critical problem existing in the technology of dynamic task allocation is how to develop an implicit human–computer communication interface. Two models of `neural network' and `predictive method' are proposed in this study to allocate the task between the human and the computer. The first phase in this study was to find some important and sensitive indexes to measure the mental workload in supervisory task through the multiple regression equation. The second phase of this study was to construct a programming system in an FMS to evaluate the workload index and allocate the task dynamically through the application of the back propagation network (BPN) and the predictive values of the multiple regression equation. Twenty-two subjects attended the experiment and were divided into two groups, one was the dynamic group and the other was the static group. The result showed that the workload of the dynamic group was significantly lower than the static group (p-value=0.0426<α=0.05). The neural network proved to be an effective method for decreasing the mental workload through dynamic task allocation.

Relevance to industry
The mental workload of the operator must be considered when designing an FMS. The results of this study show that the method of neural network can be applied to the design of dynamic task allocation in the control room of FMS.
Criteria for the complementary allocation of functions in automated work systems and their use in simultaneous engineering projects
1995, International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics
A crucial step in any system design concerns the allocation of functions between human and machine. In simultaneous engineering, function allocation is potentially an issue both in product design — if the product is a technical system itself — and in process design. It is argued that well-founded function allocation decisions in relation to the production process are of particular importance in simultaneous engineering as less and less time is allowed for compensation for inadequate or missing decisions which will impede production effectiveness. The focus of recent methods for the allocation of functions is to operationalize the concept of complementarity, meaning to provide guidelines for complementing humans by technical systems instead of replacing them gradually as technical systems become more and more sophisticated. As systems design becomes more complex, involving more and faster changes and placing higher demands on engineers as well as system operators, the idea of complementary gains importance because it stresses the need to allocate functions in a way that supports human control over the production process and the development and maintenance of the necessary skills. Looking at existing methods and instruments for the complementary allocation of functions, one is at first sight confronted with a multitude of criteria for complementarity, but to date neither a fixed set of criteria, comparable to software usability criteria, nor widely accepted methods for their measurement exist. As part of a research project concerned with the development of guidelines whose objective is to assist engineers in designing work systems according to the complementarity principle, four central criteria for complementary function allocation were identified: dynamic coupling, process transparency, human decision authority, and flexibility. These criteria and their application in a design process are illustrated by means of a case study and discussed in terms of other approaches to complementary design as well as their use for simultaneous engineering projects.
Relevance to industry
Adequate allocation of functions between human and machine is crucial for the effectiveness of any production system. With more complex and faster design processes in simultaneous engineering projects, the need for methods supporting prospective analysis and design of human-machine systems has increased even more. The article presents such a method based on the principle of complementarity between human operator and technical system and illustrates its use by means of a case study.
Expert system and dynamic allocation applied to air traffic control
1994, Robotics and Computer Integrated Manufacturing
Increases in air traffic and air traffic controller workload lead to a need to provide assistance to the air traffic controller. The purpose of this research is to propose and validate a new organization of air traffic control, which allows air traffic controllers to remain active in the control and supervisory loop of the process, in order to maintain the present traffic safety level and to improve the global system performances. This research consists in decomposing the problem according to the two levels of the air traffic control organization: a tactical level which aims at regulating the traffic and a strategic level which aims at filtering this traffic. The first step of this work is directed towards a horizontal cooperation that consists of a dynamic allocation of the tactical level control tasks between human air traffic controllers and an assistance tool. This paper presents the dynamic task allocation principles, and describes the experimental platform for task allocation in air traffic control. The experimental protocol used for the experiments with qualified air traffic controllers is described and the first results are presented. They show the real help a dynamic task allocation provides to the air traffic controllers. Finally, a global organization involving multi-level cooperation is proposed.

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^*: Now with the Department of Industrial Engineering, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina 2963-0920, U.S.A.

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An experimental study of dialogue-based communication for dynamic human-computer task allocation

International Journal of Man-Machine Studies

Ironies of automation

On the allocation of functions between men and machines

Occupational Psychology

Functions of men in complex systems

Aerospace Engineering

The use of models of human decision making to enhance human-computer interaction

A Monte-Carlo simulation investigating means of human-computer communication for dynamic task allocation