Critical systems thinking and practice
Introduction
The ideas that have inspired critical systems thinking derive from two sources – social theory and systems thinking itself.
Of particular importance, in the social sciences, has been work that allows an overview to be taken of different ways of analysing and intervening in organizations. For example, Burrell and Morgan’s (1979) book on sociological paradigms and organizational analysis, and Morgan’s (1986) examination of `images' of organization, have enabled critique of the assumptions different systems approaches make about social science, social reality and organizations. Critical social theory, from Marx through to Habermas and Foucault, has also had a significant role to play. From Marx came recognition of the inequalities in capitalist society and exploitative relationships in many enterprises. Habermas, 1970, Habermas, 1975 theory of three human interests, the technical, practical and emancipatory, and his warnings about the dominance of instrumental reason (wedded to the technical interest) informed reflection on the role of the various systems methodologies and provided justification for early attempts to conceptualize them as complementary since they could be seen as addressing different interests. His later work (Habermas, 1984) on `communicative competence' and `the ideal speech situation' permitted critique of the aspirations of SSM in particular. The work of postmodernists such as Lyotard and Foucault (see Jackson, 1991), focusing on the operation of the power/knowledge nexus, has led to a questioning of the legitimacy of all `systematising' and `totalizing' endeavours, and has demanded a response from critical systems thinking.
From systems thinking itself, critical systems thinking inherited a set of powerful concepts, such as system, element, relationship, boundary, input, transformation, output, environment, feedback, emergence, communication, control, identity and hierarchy. If the systems movement had failed in its early aspirations (see von Bertalanffy, 1968) to create a `general system theory' setting out the laws governing the behaviour of all systems, whatever their type, it did manage to give birth to a range of methodologies, based upon the systems concepts, for intervening in and seeking to improve problem situations. It is arguable that there are two reasons why these methodologies should have proved so successful. First, problems in the real-world do not correspond to traditional disciplinary boundaries and the systems concepts encourage interdisciplinary or, at least, multidisciplinary practice. Secondly, the systems concepts enshrine a commitment to `holism' – to looking at the world in terms of `wholes' that exhibit emergent properties, rather than believing, in a reductionist fashion, that insight comes from breaking wholes down into their fundamental elements. Holism has proved a useful antidote to reductionism when tackling real-world problem situations.
Critical systems thinking recognises that social theory and systems thinking possess complementary strengths and weaknesses. The social sciences are strong on theory, on thinking about the ontological and epistemological assumptions that go into gaining knowledge, but they are weak on practice. It seems clear that the theoretical presuppositions used for studying the social world will also have implications for how one might intervene in social reality. However, social scientists rarely seem to draw out these implications in terms of specific guidance for what should be done in changing organizations and society. Applied systems thinkers, on the other hand, are dedicated to practice but often neglect theory. It is equally obvious that any attempt to change the world rests upon taken-for-granted assumptions about the nature of that world. Hidden in the commonsense or craft knowledge of the systems practitioner are ontological and epistemological presuppositions. In not exploring these, systems thinking has failed to take full advantage of opportunities to learn from practice and to develop as a discipline.
Critical systems thinking seeks to draw on the respective strengths of social theory and systems thinking. Social theory provides material for the enhancement of existing and the development of new systems approaches. Not all the fine theoretical distinctions drawn by social scientists make a difference when applied in the real-world, but some are of considerable importance and must be regarded as crucial for systems practice. Social theory also provides the means whereby systems practitioners can reflect on and learn from their interventions. From the other side, systems thinking can assist in the task of translating the findings of social theory into a practical form and encapsulating those findings in well-worked out approaches to intervention. The success of systems thinking in linking theory and practice provides a model which, I have argued (Jackson, 1997a), can be used in information systems and, indeed, in the applied disciplines generally.
In retrospect, and the rules of this special issue require that we give some personal details, I can see that my background and inclinations fitted me to be a critical systems thinker. I originally went to Oxford to study history but during the first year changed my degree course to Politics, Philosophy and Economics. By the third year I was studying the maximum number of sociology courses available at Oxford and had become a social scientist. After my first degree, I entered the civil service, as a tax inspector, for four years, picking up my first practical experience of working in an organization. The job offered me plenty of time for study and I engaged on an intensive reading programme, immersing myself in the Marxist classics and becoming acquainted with the early work of Habermas and Foucault. I was particularly influenced by Althusser and his notion of society as a structured totality in which the various parts assumed relationships of dominance and dependence. There are echoes of this in `total systems intervention' (TSI) (Flood and Jackson, 1991a). During this period, I also continued a peripheral involvement (which had begun in school, around 1968) with various left-wing groupings and causes.
By 1977 I had had enough of life in an archetypical bureaucracy and also wanted to continue my study of social systems more formally. I joined the MA Systems in Management course, which had been developed by Peter Checkland at Lancaster University. It was an interesting time to be at Lancaster. The Burrell and Morgan book was about to go to press and Checkland’s `soft' systems methodology was maturing into the form it took in his 1981 classic Systems Thinking, Systems Practice (Checkland, 1981). I took a kind of detached interest in applied systems thinking always viewing the methodologies available through a social theory lens. My 1978 dissertation `Considerations on Method' was an analysis of applied systems thinking from the point of view of social science and argued for a critical systems approach. Full appreciation of the practical value of systems methodologies did not come until I began to teach them myself, and use them in the real-world, some years later.
After Lancaster I moved to Warwick University to study for a Ph.D. in organizational behaviour. I abandoned Warwick after one year, however, to take up appointment as a lecturer in the Department of Operational Research at the University of Hull. This department, at the time, was moving away from `hard' operational research and seeking students in management. There was space for new thinking and a new research programme. The ideas that we have seen as crucial to critical systems thinking had started to come together in my mind. Circumstances had contrived to allow me to make my contribution to the development of critical systems thinking and practice.
Section snippets
Origins
Until the 1970s systems thinkers, whether theorists or practitioners, operated from within the same paradigm. Summarizing, it was assumed that systems of all types could be identified by empirical observation of reality and could be analyzed by essentially the same methods that had brought success in the natural sciences. Systems could then, if the interest was in practice, be manipulated the better to achieve whatever purposes they were designed to serve. Systems thinking until the 1970s,
Contemporary character
I will now address, from a contemporary perspective, some further questions about how critical systems thinking can be operationalised in order to realise its full potential. These can be posed at the level of methods, models and techniques (call all these ‘tools’), at the level of methodology and at the level of meta-methodology.
It is a legitimate criticism of TSI (see Mingers and Brocklesby, 1996) that it is inflexible because it emphasises the use of ‘whole’ methodologies. Once an
Uses
The point of critical systems practice is that it brings appropriate methodologies and tools to bear on problem situations whatever their nature. Just looking at the examples in the original account of TSI (Flood and Jackson, 1991a,b), I can see that the approach was used in interventions to improve quality, in project management, in encouraging participation, in visioning, in crisis management, in planning, in marketing, in organizational restructuring and in policy analysis. In each case, TSI
Conclusions
I have elsewhere (Jackson, 1995) favourably compared the research approach used to develop critical systems thinking and practice with that which brought quality management, business process reengineering, and the learning organization to the market. Critical systems researchers do not claim to know the answer in advance or peddle the same solution to all problems in all circumstances. Critical systems researchers seek to be holistic and to ensure that theory both underpins practice and is
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