Advances in Parkinson's Disease detection and assessment using voice and speech: A review of the articulatory and phonatory aspects
Introduction
Parkinson's Disease (PD) is a chronic and progressive condition caused by the gradual neuronal death in the substantia nigra, implicated in the production of dopamine neurotransmitters, which play a crucial role in motor control. [1]. Despite the fact that PD is the second most common neurodegenerative disease, the average diaganosis time is above two years [2]. Therefore, new precision medicine tools based on patient's signs are needed to assist diagnosis and personalized treatment. To this respect, speech involves complex and precise coordination of the respiratory system, larynx, and supraglottal articulators, being an excellent candidate to provide such diagnostic information [3].
Several studies previous to 1970 described the speech of people with PD [4], [5], although it is not until 1969 [6], [7] that a group of researchers analyzed more thoroughly the problems of phonation, prosody, and articulation of PD patients. Since then, a plethora of studies have presented evidence that the neurodegenerative processes associated with PD cause dysphonia and dysarthria, particularly hypokinetic dysarthria [6], [8], [9], [10] in different stages of the disease [11]. Dysphonia can be defined as the speaker's incapacity to produce a normal phonation due to the phonatory system's impaired functioning, while dysarthria is more related to problems with articulation when pronouncing words. More specifically, hypokinetic dysarthria is characterized by a reduction of loudness and articulation amplitude, slow speech rates combined with rushes of fast speech sometimes, and a decrease of intelligibility mostly. Some specialists suggest that 90% of PD patients suffer from dysarthria [12], [3] after a median latency period of 7 years since diagnosis, which is in accordance with the study [13], although other works such as [14], [15] point to lower values. The prevalence of dysarhtria and dysphonia in PD patients is unclear. Some studies determine a higher prevalence of dysphonia (65.5%) over articulatory impairment (38.5%) when perceptually evaluating 200 patients [15]. These results are consistent with those reported by previous studies [13] employing the same number of patients. However, the mentioned studies employed perceptual methods. More recent studies such as [16] suggest a higher prevalence of articulatory deficits. Whereas this last study uses objective measurements, the employed cohort is much smaller. In this context, literature shows a myriad of studies and approaches investigating the influence of PD in the voice or speech of patients and proposing new biomarkers or automatic detection schemes to support the diagnosis of this condition. The interest in parkinsonian speech has increased with time as shown in Fig. 1, which includes the number of studies per year related to dysarthria in PD and the influence of PD in motor speech aspects between 1956 and May 2020, according to PubMed. In general terms, it is possible to divide these studies into four main groups depending on the analyzed speech aspect, i.e., phonatory, articulatory, prosodic, and cognitive-linguistic:
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Phonatory studies are related to the glottal source and resonant structures of the vocal tract, employing most of the time sustained vowels as acoustic material for the analysis.
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Studies based on articulatory aspects are more diverse as there exist more analysis possibilities: the features or the acoustic measurements analyzed can be extracted from different types of sound segments and can be related to the velocity or acceleration of articulators, type of transitions between segments, or the evolution of formants among others.
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Prosodic studies mainly focus on paralinguistic features such as pitch variation, syllable rate analysis, or the manifestation of emotions in the speech signal.
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Finally, the cognitive-linguistic approaches analyze the deviations in cognitive behavior by examining the vocabulary, sentence complexity, phrase construction, and the existence of word repetitions, among other manifestations.
The speech task or acoustic material that is used in each case is a differentiating key factor of the four aspect groups. In the phonatory analysis, sustained vowels are commonly employed as acoustic material, while in the other three groups, the use of connected speech is necessary. For the latter, monologues, read passages, and Diadochokinetic (DDK) tasks1 are mostly considered.
Among all the studies evaluating of the patient's speech, it is possible to differentiate between two types of analysis:
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Perceptual assessment, where trained evaluators follow a specific protocol such as the Frenchay Dysarthria assessment [17] to rate certain aspects of the speech
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Objective analysis, which makes use of algorithms to characterize the signal through certain acoustic features.
To this extent, the literature about PD presents reviews concerning the influence of speech treatments [18], [19], the effects of the pharmacological and surgical therapy [20], [21], [22] on voice and speech, prosody [23], aspects of language [24], speech perception [25], or behavioral treatments for speech [26], among others. Despite that the studies in the literature about parkinsonian speech are abundant, as Fig. 1 shows, no article reviews the findings on the use of the phonatory and articulatory aspects of voice and speech with diagnosis purposes.
Consequently, this article aims to fill this gap, presenting a comprehensive review of the state of the art on PD diagnosis and severity assessment employing signal processing and machine learning techniques focused on phonatory and articulatory aspects of voice and speech. Our objective is to perform a survey of the state of the art to provide a categorization of those studies describing the main speech tasks, features, and signal processing techniques employed in the objective assessment of PD. This review aims to provide a broad overview and discussion of the existing methods and their advantages/disadvantages, and will help to identify the most recommended methodologies to be followed in future works. As secondary objectives, we identify some methodological issues that often arise in the processing of PD speech, and describe the corpora that are publicly available to analyze phonatory and articulatory aspects of parkinsonian speech.
The article is organized as follows: Section 2 introduces the methods to the review, Sections 3 and 4 includes an analysis of phonatory and articulatory aspects, respectively, while Section 5 lists and describes the most common features employed in the state of the art. Lastly, Sections 6 and 7 include the discussion and conclusions of the article.
Section snippets
Methods
In this review, we selected articles from PubMed and Google Scholar search after having considered the following selection criteria: documents in English analyzing the effect of PD in voice and speech, proposing new biomarkers or methodologies to detect or assess the disease utilizing speech technologies. The search queries employed to obtain the list of studies can be found in the additional material accompanying this paper. As the review is focused on the articulatory and phonatory aspects of
Evidence of the influence of PD in the phonatory system
Studies about the influence of PD in the phonatory system mainly analyze the impairments in phonatory-related structures and muscles like the diaphragm, the muscles connected to the larynx, the vocal folds, or the supra-glottal resonant cavities. The type of acoustic material analyzed in these cases is usually the voice signal from one or several sustained vowels, which can be maintained during a specific time-lapse or modulated in frequency and amplitude. Sustained vowels are expected to
Evidence of PD's influence in phoneme articulation
Connected speech contains fluctuations in vocal characteristics such as voice onset, voice termination, and voice breaks, which are considered crucial in quality of voice and speech evaluation. These characteristics are not fully represented with sustained vowels. Several studies in literature point out to an evident influence of PD in phoneme articulation, and study that influence in some specific sounds or articulatory movements. In one of the earliest studies trying to determine parkinsonian
Common features employed for detection or severity assessment of PD
This section lists some of the most common features employed in the automatic detection and severity assessment of PD. Table 1 includes a list of some of the motor feature families and coefficients analyzed in the literature to detect or assess PD. The table includes comments about the significance of these features’ discriminative properties and a reference to the studies using them. All the features in the list have been presented in this article, and the most relevant are discussed in the
Discussion
In this review, we have analyzed different studies dealing with the influence of PD on the phonatory and articulatory aspects of voice and speech and how such influence can help to design new tools to assist the diagnosis and evaluation of the disease. The literature reports a large amount of features and methods to characterize parkinsonian speech. Some studies employ feature vectors with hundreds of measurements that are used as the input of machine learning classifiers to create automatic
Conclusions
In this study, we have presented a comprehensive review of state of the art on the use of speech analyzing the phonatory and articulatory aspects to support PD diagnosis and evaluation, with a particular emphasis on those studies proposing approaches to detect PD automatically or to assess its severity. In view of the state of the art, and from an analysis of better and worse practices, we also provide recommendations to be followed in the future.
The aforementioned works are the pillars that
Authors’ contributions
Laureano Moro-Velazquez: Conceptualization; Data curation; Formal analysis; Investigation; Methodology; Validation; Visualization; Roles/Writing – original draft; Writing – review & editing.
Jorge A. Gomez-Garcia: Data curation; Resources; Software; Validation; Visualization; Roles/Writing – original draft; Writing – review & editing.
Julian D. Arias-Londoño: Formal analysis; Investigation; Validation; Writing – review & editing.
Najim Dehak: Formal analysis; Funding acquisition; Project
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness of Spain under grant DPI2017-83405-R1.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors report no declarations of interest.
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