Relationships between identity formation and computer use among black and white emerging adult females
Introduction
Many high school and college students today have high levels of computer literacy. The current generation of high school and college youth has been using computers in their homes and schools for several years and are not intimidated by the use of computer assisted technology (Schumacher & Morahan-Martin, 2001). In fact, some have argued that current technology may be related to specific personality variables (Bronebrake, 2002). According to Young (1998), the use of computers and the Internet by adolescents and young adults illustrate the possible links between psychological adjustment and identity formation prevalent among this population. When Internet use among young adult females have been examined, the general finding is that computer use by females remains less than it does for males and that females report more negative attitudes (Schumacher & Morahan-Martin, 2001). The purpose of this study is to examine the links between the amount and kinds of computer and Internet use, and aspects of identity formation and self esteem among college-age Black and White adult females.
From a developmental perspective, personal identity is clearly not stable but is instead an on-going process of self-reflection and change as one navigates through life (Arnett, 2002; Schwartz, 2001). Marcia, 1980, Marcia, 1994 theorized that individuals begin the identity formation process in a state of diffusion and progress through a process of exploration until they are committed to an option or set of options as an integral part of the self. This process of identity formation seems to take longer than scholars had once thought and seems to emerge beyond adolescence into adulthood, at least (Kroger, 1999). Arnett (2002) observed that late adolescence and early adulthood has become a time for role experimentation. The entrance to full adulthood is being postponed, compared to earlier generations, as these young people continue to explore their identities in relation to love, ideology, and work.
Erikson (1968) theorized that the task of identity formation among adolescents and young adults as one of making choices by exploring alternatives and committing to roles. According to Erikson, identity formation among adolescents and young adults requires sifting through a range of choices in our lives before we make commitments around key areas of interpersonal relations, work and career choices, and ideology (beliefs and values). Erikson’s model of identity achievement has been expanded, clarified, and empirically tested in recent years by Marcia, 1980, Marcia, 1994. Marcia has theorized that individuals begin the identity formation developmental process in a state of diffusion and progress through a process of exploration until they are committed to an option or set of options as an integral part of the self.
Some researchers have challenged and criticized the identity theories of Erikson and Marcia as incomplete because they emphasize individual differences in identity achievement and have overlooked the pattern of developmental change that takes an individual from identity diffusion through identity achievement (Oyserman, Gant, & Ager, 1995). Thus, the debate is one of focus on either individual difference in outcomes or the developmental processes of internal and external factors that enhance or restrict development of identity achievement. For example, Oyserman, Gant, and Ager criticized Erikson and Marcia because they portrayed identity as “ an autonomous, bounded, independent entity created by the individual” (p. 1217). According to Oyserman et al., this view of identity formation virtually ignores the social context in which identities are constructed. Thus, identities are negotiated within a framework of one’s interpersonal encounters and partly in a wider social context.
Kroger (1999) has observed that few studies of identity have extended beyond the age of 21 despite evidence that adolescents and young adults may take longer than those in earlier generations in their identity formation. This may be particularly true for college students in comparison with non-college students who are in an environment that asks them to question previously held ideas (Lytle, Bakken, & Romig, 1997). Studies of college students have indicated that progression in identity formation is primarily in the occupational areas and often not in identity formation more generally (Waterman, 1992).
In addition to expanding age considerations in identity formation, some investigators have argued that variables of gender and race in identity formation add even greater complexity to the process (Mullis, Mullis, & Brailsford, 2003). For example, there is some evidence that females are more willing than males to postpone career exploration for relationship exploration (Cooper & Grotevant, 1989; Marcia, 1994). Ethnic identity exploration has been found to be higher among ethnic minorities than among White American young adults (Phinney & Alipuria, 1990).
Côté (1996) noted that it is possible that race is more important for certain dimensions of identity formation than gender, such that depending on their class and age, women of a given race may subjectively experience more in common with men of their own race as they form their sense of identity. One aspect of the growing capacity of self reflection, for adolescents and young adults who are members of ethnic minorities, is likely to be a sharpened awareness of what it means for them to be a member of their minority group. For example, there is evidence that identity exploration is higher among ethnic minority young adults than among White American young adults (Phinney & Alipuria, 1990).
Increasing research attention has been given to computer and Internet use as a source of individual and relational difficulties and resources among adolescents and young adults. For example, Young, (1998) identified several influences contributing to the risk potential of excessive Internet use among college students. These influences include: (a) desires to escape college stressors; (b) social intimidation and alienation; (c) huge blocks of unstructured time; (d) newly expressed freedom from parental control.
Whereas experimentation with Internet involvement may not necessarily stem from identity issues, identity may inevitably become the source of involvement with the Internet. In a longitudinal study of the effects of the Internet on social involvement and psychological well-being, Kraut et al. (1996) concluded that initial social involvement and psychological well-being were generally not associated with subsequent use of the Internet. However, their findings did imply that the direction of causation is more likely to run from use of the Internet to declines in social involvement and psychological well-being, rather than the reverse.
The purpose of this study was to examine the relations between identity formation and computer use among Black and White young adult females. The following research questions were proposed:
- 1.
Are there racial differences in relations between the quantity, types, and perception of problems in computer and Internet use among Black and White young adult females?
- 2.
Are there racial differences in the relations between computer and Internet use and identity formation among Black and White young adult females?
- 3.
Are there racial differences in relations between computer use and self-esteem among Black and White young adult females?
Section snippets
Participants
Participants for this study were 156 undergraduate female students enrolled in basic studies courses at a large southeastern university. The average age of participants was 21 (sd = 1.8). Participants identified themselves as White (82%), and Black (18%). The majority reported being either single (63%) or cohabiting (22). Most of the participants reported that their mothers and fathers had some college education (73% & 76%, respectively). Forty nine percent reported growing up in a small or
Discussion
The findings of this study underscore the importance of examining relations between computer use and personality variables. More importantly, the relations between these variables require that racial differences must also be considered. Côté (1996) noted that it is possible that race is more important for certain dimensions of identity formation and our findings suggest that this may apply to their computer and Internet use as well.
Young (1998) identified several influences contributing to the
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