Elsevier

Computers in Human Behavior

Volume 24, Issue 5, September 2008, Pages 2415-2433
Computers in Human Behavior

The roles of task difficulty and prior videogame experience on performance and motivation in instructional videogames

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2008.02.016Get rights and content

Abstract

Videogames are an increasingly popular instructional tool. This research investigated how various strategies for modifying task difficulty in instructional videogames impact learner performance and motivation. Further, the influence of prior videogame experience on these learning outcomes was examined, as well as the role prior experience played in determining the optimal approach for adjusting task difficulty. Participants completed a game-based training task under one of four task difficulty conditions: static, increasing, adaptive-low and adaptive-high. All participants completed an identical pre-training trial, 10 practice trials varying in difficulty level according to condition, and a final performance trial. Results demonstrate that learner performance and motivation significantly improved in all difficulty conditions. Further, prior videogame experience was found to significantly influence these learning outcomes and a three-way interaction was detected between performance, task difficulty condition, and experience. The results of this research provide information useful to instructional videogame developers and instructors utilizing videogames as instructional tools.

Introduction

PC-based videogames are emerging as an increasingly popular instructional tool in education, industry, and the military (Burgos et al., 2007, Herz and Macedonia, 2002). There are a variety of arguments for the adoption of videogame-based training tools. Among these is the potential to capitalize on the motivational draw of game play (Dickey, 2005, Gee, 2003, O’Neil and Fisher, 2004, Prensky, 2001, Rieber, 1996). Knowledge acquisition and transfer of the skills learned in the game to real-world tasks has also been demonstrated (Gopher et al., 1994, Knerr et al., 1979). However, the research on videogame-based training is not all positive, with a fair amount of research showing that instructional games do not always lead to the desired motivational properties and instructional gains (Hays, 2005). Given the increasing popularity of using videogames for instructional purposes, research has sought to identify factors that maximize the effectiveness of this instructional medium.

Prior research demonstrates that videogame attributes, such as task difficulty, realism, and interactivity, affect learning outcomes in game-based learning environments (Belanich et al., 2004, Garris et al., 2002, Malone et al., 1987). For instance, this prior work suggests that in order to be most effective, instructional games should present an optimal level of difficulty to learners. This optimal range of difficulty can be thought of along the lines of Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development – where training should be difficult to the learner, but not beyond his/her capability (Vygotsky, 1978). Instructional games that are too easy or too difficult can lead to reduced motivation and time on task (Bowman, 1982, Malone, 1981, Malone et al., 1987, Paas et al., 2005, Provenzo, 1991); which, in turn, may ultimately result in less positive learning outcomes, such as diminished knowledge/skill acquisition and retention (Colquitt et al., 2000, Mathieu et al., 1992, Tannenbaum and Yukl, 1992).

While research has enhanced our understanding of what particular game attributes influence training effectiveness, little research has investigated how to optimally integrate or manipulate such attributes in an instructional game. The present research sought to help address this gap by focusing on the attribute of task difficulty. Specifically, we examined how various strategies for modifying task difficulty over the progression of an instructional game impact subsequent learner performance and motivation.

The current research focused on two specific training criteria: training performance and motivation. Clearly, performance improvement as a result of the instruction provided is an important criterion to consider, as an individual’s performance while completing a training program is indicative of the extent to which he/she is acquiring the knowledge and skills being targeted within the instructional content. Further, training research demonstrates that a learner’s training performance is positively related to subsequent knowledge and skill transfer (Ford et al., 1998, Kozlowski et al., 2001).

We also focused on the criterion of training motivation. Training motivation reflects the trainee’s desire to engage in and learn the content of the training program (Noe, 1986). Research has consistently found that training motivation influences both cognitive and skill-based learning outcomes across a variety of instructional settings (e.g., Baldwin et al., 1991, Colquitt et al., 2000, Martocchio and Webster, 1992, Noe and Schmitt, 1986, Tannenbaum and Yukl, 1992). An individual’s level of training motivation may be particularly relevant to examine in game-based instructional environments, as proponents of instructional videogames argue that a fundamental advantage of using videogames (over other more traditional instructions tools) is the ability to capture and maintain trainee motivation over the course of the instruction. In short, this research sought to understand how to best manipulate task difficulty in a training game so that the game is both engaging and effective as an instructional tool.

Task difficulty or challenge of an instructional activity can be defined as the degree to which the activity represents a personally demanding situation requiring a considerable amount of cognitive or physical effort in order to develop the learner’s knowledge and skill levels. Individuals are challenged when they encounter a task/situation that demands skills, knowledge, or behaviors beyond their current capabilities (Van Velsor & McCauley, 2004). Additionally, individuals are most motivated by challenging tasks that do not offer certain success or failure, but rather those that provide an intermediate probability of success (Belanich et al., 2004, Malone et al., 1987).

In computer games, the likelihood of success is manipulated by modifying the task difficulty of the game. Typically, videogames get more difficult as the player progresses, such that each game level is more difficult than the previous level. The player will progress until he/she either: (a) completes the game or (b) reaches a point where the difficulty level surpasses his/her ability (or motivation), at which point the player is likely to stop game play. This is fine for games played for entertainment purposes. However, for training games it is important for trainees to complete the training objectives; and thus, avoid situations where the trainee can not progress to the next “level” of the game. Further, even if a training game can be completed, a trainee who is not appropriately challenged during the game, may not be fully motivated or engaged; and therefore, will likely not receive the full value of the training. Thus, the question of how to appropriately manipulate task difficulty over the progression of an instructional game is of value.

The issue of adjusting game difficulty has been addressed by the commercial, entertainment gaming world. Specifically, many entertainment games deal with this issue by progressively increasing game difficulty regardless of the individual player’s ability/performance level. Some games allow players to personally select a level of difficulty in which to play the game (e.g., novice, intermediate, and expert). While other games approach this issue by adaptively changing the level of difficulty throughout game play (e.g., the game gets easier when players perform poorly and more difficult when they perform well). To date, to the authors’ knowledge, no research has systematically compared different strategies for manipulating task difficulty in videogames used for instructional purposes.

This research was an initial attempt to examine if several different strategies used for modifying difficulty in entertainment games are also effective for modifying level of difficulty in instructional videogames. Specifically, this research sought to provide initial evidence as to whether a particular strategy is more effective than others in terms of maintaining learner motivation throughout game play and in turn enhancing subsequent training performance.

We chose to examine two different strategies for modifying task difficulty: forced adjustment and learner-centered adaptive adjustment. A forced difficulty level adjustment is where the videogame gradually gets harder regardless of the learner’s current performance level; whereas a learner-centered adaptive difficulty adjustment is where the game gets easier when the learner performs poorly and harder when he/she performs well. For comparison purposes, we also examined if the use of a constant difficulty level throughout game play (i.e., static difficulty level) is beneficial for learner performance and motivation. Note that the strategies investigated in the present research are not exhaustive of all possible approaches for manipulating task difficulty; rather, this effort was an initial attempt to discern differences among some of the more common strategies used in entertainment games.

While this research is primarily exploratory in nature, we predicted that trainee performance and motivation may be optimized in a learner-centered adaptive difficulty condition because the difficulty level would match the learner’s performance/ability, as compared to a forced difficulty level adjustment condition or static condition. In the forced difficulty level adjustment condition, task difficulty may increase faster than participants’ skill level increases; and thus, it could be counterproductive, leading to inferior performance. Similarly, a lack of increased difficulty over time in the static condition is also expected to result in a mismatch between the game level and learner skill level, as the learner’s skill may surpass the “set” level over time. In turn, learner motivation and performance may be negatively impacted. The expected benefits of a learner-centered adaptive difficulty condition are consistent with Kalyuga and Sweller’s (2005) research findings concerning an adaptive PC-based algebraic tutor training program.

Prior research on training games has found that trainee characteristics, and in particular, a trainee’s prior experience with videogames, influence various trainee outcomes in videogame-based instructional environments. For instance, research has found that an individual’s prior videogame experience (i.e., frequency of videogame use) is predictive of his/her future performance in videogame-based environments (Alvarez et al., 2004, Frey et al., 2007, Gagnon, 1985, Orvis et al., 2006, Young et al., 1997). Further, videogame experience has also been found to significantly predict several affective and motivational learning outcomes, such as training motivation, satisfaction, perceived ease in using the training game interface, and time spent engaging in an instructional game (Orvis et al., 2006, Orvis et al., 2007). The importance of prior experience/knowledge has also been demonstrated in other PC-based instructional environments (e.g., Brinkerhoff and Koroghlanian, 2005, Dyck and Smither, 1996, Patterson, 1999, Reed et al., 2000, Shih et al., 2006).

Based on this prior research, the present research also examined the influence of prior videogame experience on performance and motivation in videogame-based instructional environments. Additionally, we explored the impact prior experience may have on determining the optimal approach for adjusting difficulty level, as research suggests that the instructional methods for maximizing learner performance and motivation may differ for novice and high experience/expertise learners (e.g., Clarke et al., 2005, Kalyuga and Sweller, 2005, Schnotz and Rasch, 2005).

Section snippets

Participants

Twenty-six participants completed a 12-trial training game task under one of four task difficulty conditions. Participants were employed adults working part-time to full-time in a research organization; the majority of participants were also graduate students. The mean age of participants was 25.96 years (SD = 5.30 years). Participants were recruited via email and their participation in the experiment was voluntary.

Experimental design

A single-factor experiment, with repeated measures, was conducted to test the

Descriptive statistics

Intercorrelations between the study variables and the variable means and standard deviations for the total sample, as well as for each task difficulty condition and level of videogame experience, are displayed in Table 2. For efficiency in reporting in this table, practice performance was averaged across the 10 practice trials. Note that the variable of prior videogame experience was dichotomized into inexperienced and experienced gamers, with inexperienced gamers reporting that they typically

Discussion

To date, to the authors’ knowledge, there has been no research on task difficulty manipulation of videogame-based training environments and its influence on training outcomes. This research was an initial attempt to advance our understanding of how different strategies for modifying task difficulty over the progression of a training game affect the training outcomes of learner performance and motivation. Because experience and skill level are determinants of the relative level of difficulty of

Summary

Recent technological advances in the videogaming world have been leveraged for instructional purposes by training professionals and educators (Beal, 2005, Burgos et al., 2007, Herz and Macedonia, 2002). Instructional videogames can be motivating to use (Malone, 1981, O’Neil and Fisher, 2004, Prensky, 2001) and skills learned in game-based training environments can transfer to real-life situations (Gopher et al., 1994, Knerr et al., 1979). While some positive examples of game-based training have

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    The views, opinions, and/or findings contained in this article are solely those of the authors and should not be construed as an official Department of the Army or DOD position, policy, or decision, unless so designated by other documentation.

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