Elsevier

Computers in Human Behavior

Volume 31, February 2014, Pages 305-313
Computers in Human Behavior

Adolescent simulated gambling via digital and social media: An emerging problem

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.10.048Get rights and content

Highlights

  • We examine adolescent involvement in simulated gambling activities.

  • Over 1200 adolescents from seven secondary schools were surveyed.

  • Simulated gambling occurs via casino websites, social media, smartphone apps, and video-games.

  • Simulated gambling was associated with monetary gambling.

  • A history of simulated gambling was associated with intention to gamble with money.

Abstract

Recently, there has been significant expansion in the range of gambling activities supported by digital technology. The convergence of gambling and digital media is of particular concern with respect to the immense potential for earlier age of gambling involvement, and development of positive attitudes and/or behavioral intentions toward gambling. This study examined the prevalence of adolescent involvement in a range of digital and social media gambling activities, and the association between exposure to, and involvement in, simulated gambling and monetary gambling and indicators of pathological gambling risk. A total of 1287 adolescents aged 12–17 years were recruited from seven secondary schools in Adelaide, South Australia. The results indicated that a significant proportion of young people engage in a range of simulated gambling activities via internet gambling sites, social media, smartphone applications, and video-games. A logistic regression analysis showed that adolescents with a history of engagement in simulated gambling activities appear to be at greater risk of endorsing indicators of pathological gambling. These findings highlight the need for further research on the potential risks of early exposure to simulated gambling activities, as well as greater consideration of the need for regulation and monitoring of gambling activity via digital technologies.

Introduction

In the last decade, there has been significant expansion in the range of gambling activities supported by digital technology (Griffiths and Parke, 2010, King et al., 2010). The “convergence” (Griffiths, King, & Delfabbro, 2013) of gambling and digital media is of particular interest and concern to researchers, regulators, and allied health practitioners because of its potential to increase the likelihood of young people developing an interest in gambling at an younger age (Derevensky et al., 2010, King et al., 2010, Griffiths et al., 2012; Phillips, Ogeil, & Blaszczynski, 2012). Although some earlier research suggested youth participation rates in online gambling activities are usually lower than for terrestrial forms of gambling (Griffiths and Wood, 2007, Ipsos MORI, 2009, Najman et al., 2008), more recent market research data (e.g., Casual Connect, 2012, Church-Sanders, 2011) suggest that the popularity of online gambling is increasing rapidly. This growth has led to concerns about the potential negative impacts on young people, given that the ubiquity of these new activities allows them to gamble more covertly and unrestrictedly than was the case before (Floros, Siomos, Fisoun, & Geroukalis, 2013).

Although much has been written about the increasing pervasiveness of monetary gambling on digital media, another less recognised concern relates to the growth of simulated gambling, or gambling without the possibility of monetary reward (King et al., 2010, Griffiths et al., 2012). Simulated gambling may be defined as a digitally simulated interactive gambling activity that does not directly involve monetary gain but is otherwise structurally identical to the standard format of a gambling activity due to its wagering features and chance-determined outcomes of play. Although the boundaries between gambling and video-gaming are becoming increasingly blurred (for example, gaming features may be found in some gambling-like activities, and vice versa), simulated gambling may be distinguished from many forms of video-gaming (e.g., shooting action games, role-playing games) because in video-games there is a clear relationship between player strategy or actions and outcomes. Simulated gambling is a continually evolving mode of gambling that encompasses free-to-play gambling games using virtual credits, smartphone and social media apps, and hybrid video-game/gambling activities with monetisation features such those found in MMOs like Runescape (Delfabbro et al., 2009a, Johansson and Gotestam, 2004). Some of these activities (e.g., gambling apps on Facebook) may be considered financial because they allow players to purchase extra credit using real money, but they do not enable the player to ‘cash out’ winnings. Simulated gambling activities generally feature no age restriction or barriers to entry (King et al., 2010), employ inflated profit rates (Sevigny, Cloutier, Pelletier, & Ladouceur, 2005), and are presented as youth-friendly entertainment (Griffiths & Parke, 2010). Further, the emergence of gambling on video-gaming platforms has blurred the structural boundaries between gambling and gaming activities (Griffiths, 2008, Harper, 2007, King et al., 2012b). For example, many forms of online video gambling or social media sites feature gambling, often for credits or points paid for with real money, and many internet gambling providers offer free-play games that are rather like video games.

Potential problems related to simulated gambling may be particularly germane to young people for several reasons. The first is that young people are, by definition, developmentally immature and not always able to appraise the riskiness of activities, including gambling (Delfabbro et al., 2009b, Hardoon and Derevenksy, 2002, Volberg et al., 2010). Second, young people are particularly avid and savvy consumers of digital media and online services, including video games, laptops, tablets, and smartphones. Large-scale studies suggest that the average Australian adolescent spends about five hours per day engaged in digital media activities, including 2.5 h using the Internet (Australian Communications, 2007, Australian Communications, 2008). Most youth use Facebook to communicate and post information, browse wikis, video tutorials, and other forums to create, gather, and share information, and visit sites such as eBay to buy and sell goods. Many acquired skills and knowledge of web functionality and online navigation may be transferable to use of online gambling activities and features. Additionally, the significant amount of leisure time spent on the Internet suggests there is significant potential for exposure to gambling promotions, online gambling activities, and assorted incentives to gamble (McMullan and Kervin, 2012, Messerlian et al., 2004, Monaghan et al., 2008). Third, young people are often influenced by psychological and social factors (e.g., peer group pressure, the desire to conform, disillusionment, depression, low self-esteem, poor emotion regulation) that make isolated technology-based activities particularly attractive to them Potenza et al. (2011). Current national and international evidence confirms that many young people experience problems associated with online technology use (Ferguson et al., 2011, Gentile, 2009, King et al., 2011, King et al., 2013b, Kuss et al., 2013, Sletten et al., 2010). Although the risks of excessive online social networking and video-gaming are well-documented, less research has examined whether simulated gambling activities can give rise to similar social and psychological problems.

Research studies of young people aged under 18 years suggest that between 50% and 70% gamble at least once per year and that between 1% and 4% display behaviors consistent with a gambling pathology (Delfabbro, 2012, Hardoon and Derevenksy, 2002). Pathological gambling is usually associated with poorer social relationships and psychological functioning; a greater likelihood of involvement in other high risk behaviors; and, poorer educational performance (Delfabbro & King, 2012). Adolescents with gambling problems are more likely to have peers and family who gamble, have unrealistic views about the nature of gambling, and a history of gambling problems in their immediate family (Delfabbro, 2012).

An emerging but limited body of research suggests that simulated gambling may co-occur with monetary gambling activity. To date the largest study of simulated gambling among youth has been conducted by Ipsos (2009), who surveyed 8598 adolescents about their gambling and ‘gambling-like’ behavior. Over 25% of adolescents had played in ‘money-free’ mode of gambling in the week preceding the survey, with opportunities on social networking sites four times more popular than those presented on real gambling sites. Although the design of the study precluded statements of causality, simulated gambling behavior was the strongest predictor of monetary gambling, and also significantly predicted at-risk gambling. Comparable findings have been reported in other studies (Byrne, 2004, Griffiths and Wood, 2007, Hardoon et al., 2002). Griffiths and Wood (2007) surveyed 8017 adolescents aged 12–15 years, and reported that 29% of adolescents who had gambled online also reported playing the free ‘demo’ games. Byrne (2004) reported that young people with gambling problems were significantly more likely to report online simulated gambling in the past year than those without gambling problems. Hardoon et al. (2002) reported that 25% of youth with serious gambling problems and 20% of those at-risk for a gambling problem reported playing online using practice/trial sites. Similarly, research on adult gamblers conducted by McBride and Derevensky (2009) reported that 77% of online gamblers (N = 563) reported playing ‘gambling-like’ games (e.g., practice modes) in addition to monetary gambling on the Internet. Overall, it may be observed that the literature on youth simulated gambling is limited by: (a) its age of publication (i.e., older findings may not accurately reflect the current status of youth gambling given changes in the technological and social context of gambling), (b) the lack of studies conducted outside of the UK, and (c) the lack of detailed examination of a range of gambling activities available through digital and social media.

The vulnerability of adolescents may place them at greater risk of problematic patterns of gambling via new and emerging digital and social media. On the one hand, it has been proposed that early exposure to gambling activities may condition a range of “safer” responses to gambling stimuli (e.g., smaller bet sizes, infrequent/social play), or develop knowledge about the chance-determined nature of gambling, including the belief that one is very unlikely to win in the long-term. As Najman et al. (2008) state:

Practice play can affect the appeal of gambling games by removing some of the mystery and excitement that surrounds previously unobtainable casino type games. By experimenting with simulated casino games young people become accustomed to them and become easily bored.

However, an alternative view is that simulated gambling activities may facilitate the transition to monetary forms of gambling (McBride & Derevensky, 2009), and/or develop a behavioral tendency toward sustained gambling activity and riskier gambling strategies (Bednarz, Delfabbro, & King, 2013). The research literature on gambling convergence is currently limited with regard to explaining how and to what extent adolescent gamblers may become involved in these new forms of gambling and gambling-like activities. However, it is well-documented that online gambling service providers employ numerous strategies and techniques outside the scope of current regulation to entice young players to initiate and develop a familiarity with gambling (Derevensky et al., 2010, McBride and Derevensky, 2009, McMullan et al., 2012).

Although there is currently no established theoretical model for conceptualising risks of simulated gambling among youth, expert commentary and limited research evidence, as summarised above, suggests that simulated gambling in adolescence may act as a “gateway” activity that grooms a young person toward transition to higher-risk, monetary gambling activities. To examine this possibility, this study aimed to assess: (a) the prevalence of adolescent involvement in a range of digital and social media gambling activities, (b) the extent of the cross-over or association between simulated gambling and monetary gambling activities, and (c) whether simulated gambling exposure was associated with indicators of pathological gambling risk.

Section snippets

Design

This study employed a cross-sectional survey design. Fifty secondary schools in the outer metropolitan region of Adelaide, South Australia, were randomly selected from a comprehensive list of public and private schools. Catholic schools were excluded due to barriers in obtaining ethical clearance. Each school principal was sent a letter and one-week follow-up email invitation to participate. The study was promoted as an investigation of “electronic media use and mental health in young people”

Prevalence of simulated gambling

The first aim of this study was to examine the prevalence of adolescent involvement in simulated gambling. Table 2 presents a summary of adolescents’ involvement across a range of digital and social media-based simulated gambling activities in the last 12 months. The most popular type of simulated gambling was online card games (11.9%), followed by electronic gaming machines (3.8%), and sports betting activities (3.2%). A chi-square analysis of non-pathological versus at-risk/pathological

Discussion

This study examined the potential risks of simulated gambling via digital and social media in terms of its association with monetary gambling and pathological gambling. The results indicated that simulated gambling is a popular activity among young people aged 12–18 years, with 13% of the sample reporting involvement in simulated gambling in the last 12 months, and 32% reporting at least one lifetime episode of involvement in one or more types of simulated gambling activity. The most popular

Declaration of interest

The authors report no conflicts of interest. The authors alone are responsible for the content and writing of the paper.

Financial disclosure

This study received financial support from a 2012 Young Researcher Grant funded by the European Association for the Study of Gambling.

Acknowledgement

With thanks to the students who participated in this study, and the teachers and principals for assistance with data collection.

References (62)

  • J. Bednarz et al.

    Practice makes poorer: Practice gambling modes and their effects on real-play in simulated roulette

    International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction

    (2013)
  • J.M. Boldero et al.

    Do gambling activity patterns predict gambling problems? A latent class analysis of gambling forms among Australian youth

    International Gambling Studies

    (2010)
  • Byrne, A. M. (2004). An exploratory analysis of internet gambling among youth. Doctoral dissertation, McGill...
  • Casual Connect. (2012). Social casino gaming: Casual games sector report. Report prepared by Superdata. Available upon...
  • Church-Sanders, R. (2011). Social gaming: Opportunities for gaming operators. Report prepared by iGaming Business Ltd....
  • J. Cohen

    A power primer

    Psychological Bulletin

    (1992)
  • R.L. De Ross et al.

    The revised child anxiety and depression scale: A psychometric investigation with Australian youth

    Behaviour Change

    (2002)
  • P.H. Delfabbro

    Australasian gambling review

    (2012)
  • P.H. Delfabbro et al.

    Adolescent gambling in metropolitan Darwin: Prevalence, correlates and social influences

    Gambling Research

    (2011)
  • P.H. Delfabbro et al.

    Gambling experiences, problems, research and policy: Gambling in Australia

    Addiction

    (2012)
  • P.H. Delfabbro et al.

    Is video-game playing a risk factor for pathological gambling in Australian adolescents?

    Journal of Gambling Studies

    (2009)
  • P.H. Delfabbro et al.

    Further evidence concerning the prevalence of adolescent gambling and problem gambling in Australia: A study of the ACT

    International Gambling Studies

    (2005)
  • P.H. Delfabbro et al.

    Knowledge and beliefs about gambling in Australian secondary school students and their implications for education strategies

    Journal of Gambling Studies

    (2009)
  • J.L. Derevensky et al.

    Measuring gambling problems among adolescents: Current status and future directions

    International Gambling Studies

    (2006)
  • J.L. Derevensky et al.

    Prevalence rates of youth gambling problems: Are the current rates inflated?

    Journal of Gambling Studies

    (2003)
  • J.L. Derevensky et al.

    An empirical study examining the impact of gambling advertisements on adolescent gambling attitudes and behaviors

    International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction

    (2010)
  • G.D. Floros et al.

    Adolescent online gambling: The impact of parental practices and correlates with online activities

    Journal of Gambling Studies

    (2013)
  • K.B. Friend et al.

    Youth gambling advertising: A review of the lessons learned from tobacco control

    Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy

    (2009)
  • S. Gainsbury

    An investigation of internet gambling in Australia

    (2011)
  • D.A. Gentile

    Pathological video-game use among youth ages 8 to 18: A national study

    Psychological Science

    (2009)
  • M.D. Griffiths

    Digital impact, crossover technologies and gambling practices

    Casino and Gaming International

    (2008)
  • Cited by (0)

    View full text