Effects of aggressive traits on cyberbullying: Mediated moderation or moderated mediation?

Highlights

• Aggressive traits significantly predicted beliefs about aggression and cyberbullying.

• Network public opinion moderated the aggressive traits and cyberbullying relation.

• Beliefs about aggression partly mediated the moderation effect of network public opinion.

• Parents and schools should correctly guide students' online behaviors.

Abstract

To explore the process of cyberbullying, the current study investigated the relationships among aggressive traits, beliefs about aggression, network public opinion, and cyberbullying. A questionnaire survey was conducted among 693 Chinese college students. Based on the findings, we constructed two competing models (mediated moderation and moderated mediation). The results revealed the following: (1) Aggressive traits and beliefs about aggression were all positively correlated with cyberbullying, aggressive traits were positively correlated with beliefs about aggression, and aggressive traits were negatively correlated with network public opinion. (2) The effect of aggressive traits on beliefs about aggression and cyberbullying was moderated by network public opinion. When network public opinion included irrational comments, aggressive traits directly and indirectly affected cyberbullying. When network public opinion included rational comments, aggressive traits only directly affected cyberbullying. Finally, (3) the effect of aggressive traits on cyberbullying was moderated by network public opinion and the moderating effect of network public opinion was partly realized through the mediating effect of beliefs about aggression. The findings contribute to our understanding of when and how aggressive traits affect cyberbullying. We found support for the mediated moderation model, and the results have implications for prevention and intervention in cyberbullying.

Introduction

Cyberbullying refers to applying information and communication technology to engage in deliberate, repetitive, or hostile behaviors towards others (Jenaro, Flores, & Frías, 2017; Kowalski, Giumetti, Schroeder, & Lattanner, 2014). Cyberbullying not only severely affects the normative order of the network platform but also is closely related to a variety of adverse consequences such as low self-esteem, depression, and even suicidal ideation and behavior (Gini & Espelage, 2014; Holt et al., 2015; Reed, Cooper, Nugent, & Russell, 2016; Savage & Tokunaga, 2017; Selkie, Kota, Chan, & Moreno, 2015). Although existing studies have paid close attention to the mechanism of cyberbullying, such as the effects on cyberbullying of narcissistic, normative belief in aggressive behaviors; empathy; and gender differences (Li, Li, & Zhang, 2016; Rey et al., 2016; Topcu & Erdurbaker, 2012), these studies were all conducted from a certain perspective. Thus, they lack the consideration of the comprehensive mechanism of cyberbullying from individual and environmental factors based on the individual–environmental interaction model (Zheng et al., 2017). In addition, previous studies showed that people's views, attitudes, and opinions about an event on the Internet platform can influence cyberbullying (Li, 2006; Çetin, Yaman, & Peker, 2011). However, no study has yet investigated the effect of Internet public opinion on cyberbullying. Based on the individual–environment interaction model, the current study comprehensively investigated the effects of individual (aggressive traits and beliefs about aggression) and environmental factors (network public opinion) on cyberbullying to provide targeted suggestions for effective prevention and reduction of cyberbullying.

Cyberbullying is defined as certain aggressive behaviors that occur in cyberspace, specifically malicious, repetitive, and hostile behavior towards others by means of electronic information media, such as spreading rumors, backstabbing, spreading personal information, and so on (Antoniadou & Kokkinos, 2015). Cyberbullying is a derivative form of traditional bullying and a new form of aggression with the development of the Internet (Baroncelli & Ciucci, 2014; Hutson, 2016). In traditional bullying, the bully deliberately causes physical and psychological harm to the other party directly or indirectly. It is a conscious act usually manifested as verbal provocation (such as insult, defamation, exclusion, intimidation) and physical harm (Li et al., 2016). Bullying generally consists of three elements, including intentional harmful acts, repeated occurrences over time, and imbalance of power between the two sides (Kowalski et al., 2014). However, cyberbullying has subverted these traditional elements of bullying and makes it unnecessary for both sides to meet face to face. Therefore, bullying no longer requires the “power principle” (Li et al., 2016). With the help of new technologies, cyberbullying permits anonymity and fast communication, and has no space- or time-based constraints. Compared to traditional bullying, the forms of cyberbullying are diverse. They can be divided into emotional flaming, online harassment, online hate, cyberstalking, denigration, masquerade, outing, and online exclusion (Athanasiades, Baldry, Kamariotis, Kostouli, & Psalti, 2016; Keipi et al., 2016). According to the general aggression model, individual and environmental factors affect individuals' internal cognitive process, subsequent evaluation, and decision-making process to further influence the occurrence of aggression (Montuoro & Mainhard, 2017). Individual factors include individual personality traits, beliefs, and gender. For example, Liu, Jiang, Ren, Li, and Xu (2015) found that trait anger, as an input variable, activated the intrinsic level of hostility cognition to increase the possibility of aggression. Zheng et al. (2017) found that individual normative beliefs about aggression affected moral disengagement and Internet morality to indirectly influence cyberbullying. Topcu and Erdurbaker (2012) found that differences in gender affected individual emotional and cognitive empathy to indirectly influence cyber-and traditional bullying. Aggressive traits, as stable personality traits characterized by hostile cognition, anger, and readiness, play an important role in violent and problematic behaviors (Geel, Goemans, Toprak, & Vedder, 2017; Molapour, Lindström, & Olsson, 2016). For example, individuals with aggressive traits are more likely to make hostile attributions, which increases the likelihood of anger and aggressive behaviors (Gagnon et al., 2017). Smith et al. (2011) found that individuals high in aggressive traits were less sensitive to aggressive behaviors than were those low in aggressive traits and were more likely to regard a certain behavior as non-aggressive, leading to more aggressive behaviors among individuals high in aggressive traits (Gagnon et al., 2017). In addition, both proactive and reactive aggression are positively correlated with cyberbullying (Ang, Huan, & Florell, 2014; Savage & Tokunaga, 2017). Compared to individuals low in aggressive traits, individuals high in aggressive traits were more likely to interpret others’ behaviors as hostile or malicious and tended to have hostile cognitive bias towards others, resulting in increased hostility and aggression. By virtue of the anonymity and convenience of the network, they arbitrarily released the negative emotions that could not be dispelled in real life to other individuals in the network environment and then engaged in cyberbullying (Tremblay & Belchevski, 2004). Studies have shown that general bullying can predict cyberbullying, and most cyberbullies are also more likely to attack others in real life (Hemphill et al., 2012; Slonje & Smith, 2008). Thus, individuals with aggressive traits in real life may also show more aggression on the network platform, causing them to bully others online. In other words, cyberbullying is a displacement of individuals with aggressive traits in cyberspace to express aggressive behaviors in real life. Therefore, we proposed the following Hypothesis:

Hypothesis 1

Aggressive traits will be positively correlated with cyberbullying.

According to the trait activation theory, whether traits (aggressive traits) can predict behavior depends on whether trait-related cues are provided in the context. If there is a trait-related cue, the trait is activated by the situation, and individuals are more influenced by the trait to maintain the trait-related behaviors. On the contrary, if there is no trait-related cue, the trait cannot be activated by the situation, and the individuals' behaviors are more affected by the situation (Tett & Burnett, 2003). That is, the effects of aggressive traits on cyberbullying are moderated by situational factors. The occurrence of cyberbullying cannot be separated from the main carrier of the Internet. As a new mass medium, the convenience, anonymity, and interactivity of the network platform makes it popular among netizens. When netizens are willing to use the network platform to express their views, opinions, and comments, the network public opinion comes into being (Jiang & Liu, 2011). Network public opinion, as a new form of public opinion extended by traditional public opinion in the network, refers to the opinion or speech about which the public (especially netizens) shows a certain influence, a tendency of opinion or speech regarding some public events through network language or other means, taking the network as the platform (Hu, 2016). Although the Internet provides netizens with convenience, there are many irrational and rational elements involved in the network public opinion (Jiang & Liu, 2011). The irrational expression of network public opinion refers to the fact that netizens can easily make judgments on a given event without rigorous consideration and only based on their subjective judgment and preference, which is often characterized by emotionality, extremes, and negative tropism (Zhang & Yan, 2016). Previous studies have shown that the irrational expression atmosphere of network public opinion could lead to “human flesh search,” spreading rumors, abuse, and malicious defamation of others (Liu, 2014a, 2014b; Çetin et al., 2011). Näsi et al. found that there was a significant association between exposure to websites relating to eating disorders and online harassment. Hawdon et al. (2016) found that there is a considerable amount of hate material online, but the degree to which individuals from different countries are exposed to these materials varies, and thus there can be country-wide differences in degree of online hate. In contrast, the rational expression of network public opinion can lead individuals to correctly view problems as well as events and hold appropriate attitudes as well as beliefs about the problem or event, thus causing less cyberbullying (Xing, 2015). In addition, the individual–environment interaction model also points out that individuals' behaviors are formed and developed in the interaction between individuals and environment. Individuals’ own factors also interact with the environmental factors to influence individual development (Peter & Petermann, 2018). Individuals carry out aggressive behaviors under the influence of environmental factors, and different network atmospheres of public opinion expression can moderate the relationship between aggressive traits and cyberbullying. For example, the irrational expression of online public opinion is the result of group comments, and the individuals with aggressive traits in this situation will show more cyberbullying due to the spread of responsibility (Long, 2014). The rational expression of network public opinion will reduce or even change the negative judgment of aggressive individuals regarding the current situation and generate less cyberbullying (Dewall, Anderson, & Bushman, 2011). Therefore, we proposed the following Hypothesis:

Hypothesis 2

Network public opinion will moderate the relationship between aggressive traits and cyberbullying.

According to the general aggression and aggressive social cognition models, individual factors seldomly have direct influence on individuals' behaviors but often are influential through individual internal cognitive processes. As an individual trait factor, aggressive traits often rely on internal cognitive processes to evoke aggressive behaviors. Previous studies found that individuals with aggressive traits constructed a schema of aggressive knowledge based on their accumulated life experience, which could affect their aggressive cognition (Dewall et al., 2011) and, thus, more easily form beliefs about aggression. Belief about aggression refers to individuals' perception of whether aggression is acceptable or not when settling disputes and expressing hatred (Zhang, Liu, Xu, Wu, & Yang, 2017; Zhen, Xie, Zhang, Wang, & Li, 2011) and is one of the main incentives for aggressive behaviors (Montuoro & Mainhard, 2017). Previous studies found that aggressive traits could positively predict beliefs about aggression and that individuals with higher aggression were more likely to recognize and accept aggressive behaviors as a means of settling disputes and expressing hatred (Adams & Ireland, 2017; Geel et al., 2017). Similarly, individuals' beliefs about aggression reflect their recognition and acceptance of aggressive behaviors and have a close correlation with aggressive behaviors (Montuoro & Mainhard, 2017; Zhang et al., 2017). Some studies found that beliefs about aggression could significantly affect people's perception of aggressive cues, and higher beliefs about aggression could make them inclined to regard aggressive behaviors as a way of coping for social recognition or acceptance (Maier & James, 2014). Other studies also found that the cognitive structure (beliefs about aggression) of individuals regarding aggressive behavior positively predicted traditional bullying (Ang, 2015; Williams & Guerra, 2007; Wright & Li, 2013; Zheng et al., 2017). Cyberbullying is a special derivative of traditional aggressive behaviors (Baroncelli & Ciucci, 2014); individuals with higher beliefs about aggression may also perform more cyberbullying. Therefore, we proposed the following Hypothesis:

Hypothesis 3

Beliefs about aggression will mediate the relationship between aggressive traits and cyberbullying.

However, different atmospheres of network public opinion expression may play a specific and complex role in multiple pathways related to cyberbullying. For example, Zhang et al. (2017) found that virtual situations of repeated exposure to violent information tended to activate and strengthen individuals’ aggressive schemas, namely, to form automatic links among memory, emotion, and aggressive behaviors, thus prompting individuals to form aggressive personality traits, gradually influencing or changing adulthood individual cognitive belief systems of aggressive behavior, and then triggering cyberbullying. Compared to the rational expression atmosphere of network public opinion, when individuals with aggressive traits are exposed to the environment information of the irrational expression of network public opinion, their internal aggressive beliefs are also improved, and the probability of bullying others on the network increases accordingly (Dewall et al., 2011; Kowalski et al., 2014). Therefore, we proposed the following Hypothesis:

Hypothesis 4(a)

Beliefs about aggression will mediate the interactive effects of aggressive traits and network public opinion on cyberbullying.

Thus, the current study constructed a mediated moderation model for the relationship between aggressive trait and cyberbullying based on H₁, H₂, H₃, and H_4a (see Fig. 1).

As mentioned above, according to the general aggression model, the mechanism of aggressive behaviors is to activate the individual intrinsic information processing model by taking individual and situational factors as input variables (such as aggressive traits and network public opinion); then, the individual internal information processing model cognizes the input variables. Afterwards, the aggressive schema (such as beliefs about aggression) is activated, and the individual is guided by the aggressive schema to initiate aggressive behaviors (Dewall et al., 2011; Montuoro & Mainhard, 2017). This theory particularly emphasizes the dominant role of aggressive traits in aggressive behaviors. On one hand, aggressive traits increase hostile cognition, generate hostile interpretation, and activate aggressive schema. On the other hand, they interfere with the construction of aggressive knowledge schema, affect beliefs about aggression, and then lead to aggressive behaviors (Adams & Ireland, 2017; Ang, 2015; Wright & Li, 2013). Belief about aggression is a belief used to evaluate the acceptability of behaviors. Individuals make aggressive or non-aggressive judgments of others' behavioral intention based on their own normative beliefs about aggression (Huesmann & Kirwil, 2007). It can effectively predict the occurrence probability of individuals' aggressive behaviors with different normative beliefs, and the normative beliefs holding supportive aggressive behaviors are positively correlated with actual aggressive behaviors (Wright & Li, 2013). Wilkowski and Robinson (2008) put forward the Integrative Cognitive Model based on integrating existing theoretical models and empirical evidence. They believed that different personality traits affected the internal cognition of individuals and led to different behavioral outcomes. This suggests that there is a direct correlation between individuals' beliefs about aggression and cyberbullying, and the influence of individual trait factors on cyberbullying may need to be exerted through beliefs about aggression. For example, the joint effect of exclusion and beliefs about aggression can further strengthen individuals’ aggressive behaviors (Poon & Chen, 2014). Beliefs about aggression partially mediated the relationship between narcissistic personality traits and cyberbullying (Ang, Tan, & Talib, 2011).

As an important individual difference, the effect of aggressive traits on cyberbullying is likely to be moderated by environmental factors. For example, parental control, a family environment variable, moderates the relationship between trait self-esteem and cyberbullying (Palermiti, Servidio, Bartolo, & Costabile, 2017). As another environmental variable, network public opinion has a certain effect on individuals' thinking and behaviors (Liu et al., 2015). In other words, network public opinion may moderate the effect of beliefs about aggression on cyberbullying. According to the self-regulatory executive function model (Paananen et al., 2019), individuals with aggressive traits are unable to calm down and easily generate violence cognition and mood, resulting in the failure of individual self-regulatory executive function. Surrounded by the atmosphere of network public opinion irrational expression, individuals' beliefs about aggression will be enhanced, increasing the level of impulse, decreasing the ability of self-control, and making the individual unable to reasonably estimate the consequences of the behavior or correctly and reasonably formulate the coping strategies of behavior. Thus, these individuals very easily show cyberbullying when using the network. Compared to the traditional environment of public opinion, the network environment provides a new space for expression and discussion for the formation of public opinion as well as a relatively free communication atmosphere for public discussion. It can directly reflect the public's views or opinions on certain public events in cyberspace (Zhang & Yan, 2016). The expression of network public opinion includes rational and irrational elements. Compared to the rational expression of network public opinion, the irrational expression of network public opinion will affect individuals' attitudes and beliefs about a certain event and then more easily cause cyberbullying (Xing, 2015; Çetin et al., 2011). According to the cognitive connection theory, individuals with high beliefs about aggression influenced by aggressive words in online platforms will be more inclined to recognize and accept aggression to settle disputes and express hatred in the irrational expression atmosphere of network public opinion, thus promoting the occurrence of cyberbullying. While individuals influenced by the group atmosphere will hold appropriate attitudes and beliefs about an event and make rational judgments in the rational expression atmosphere of network public opinion, they cannot easily activate beliefs about aggression, which will reduce the occurrence of cyberbullying (Liu et al., 2015). It can be seen that different expression atmospheres of network public opinion affect individuals' cognitive belief systems, thus causing the increase or decrease of cyberbullying (Peter & Petermann, 2018). Specifically, when in the irrational expression atmosphere of network public opinion, with the increase of individuals' beliefs about aggression, cyberbullying is increased; while in the rational expression atmosphere of network public opinion, with the decrease of individuals' beliefs about aggression, cyberbullying is also decreased. Therefore, we proposed the following Hypothesis:

Hypothesis 4(b)

Network public opinion will moderate the relationship between beliefs about aggression and cyberbullying.

Thus, the current study constructed a moderated mediation model for the relationship between aggressive trait and cyberbullying based on H₁, H₂, H₃, and H_4b (see Fig. 2).

In the study of psychology and behavior, the relationship between the predictor and dependent variables is often influenced by a “third variable,” namely, a moderation variable and mediation variable (Muller, Judd, & Yzerbyt, 2005; Ye & Wen, 2013). Both moderators and mediators can explain the relationship between predictor and dependent variables, though there are differences between them. If the relationship between the predictor variable and the dependent variable is a function of the variable M, then M is called the moderator variable. Specifically, the moderator can influence the direction (positive or negative) and intensity (strong or weak) of the relationship between the predictor and dependent variables. The moderator can be qualitative (such as gender or race) or quantitative (such as age or length of education). The moderating effect is often considered when the relationship between the predictor and dependent variables is slightly stronger or weaker or changes direction. However, the meaning of the mediation variable is different from that. If the predictor variable influences the dependent variable through the variable M, then M is called the mediator variable. The mediator variable plays an indirect role in explaining how the predictor variable affects the dependent variable through it. The relationships among these three variables are examined when examining the mediating effect. Firstly, it is assumed that there is a significant correlation between the predictor and dependent variables, and there is a significant correlation between the predictor and mediator variables. If the correlation between the predictor and dependent variables or the regression coefficient is significantly decreased when the mediator variable is added, the mediating effect is more apparent. When reduced to 0, the regression coefficient is called the full-mediator (Preacher & Hayes, 2008). As mentioned earlier, if the relationship between aggressive traits as the independent variable and cyberbullying as the dependent variable is affected by the third variable of network public opinion, then the network public opinion is a moderating variable, which affects the direction (positive or negative) and the strength (strong or weak) of the relationship between aggressive traits and cyberbullying. For example, the relationship between “aggressive traits” and “cyberbullying” is influenced by “network public opinion” in the current study. When in an irrational expression atmosphere of network public opinion, aggressive traits have a positive correlation with cyberbullying; while in a rational expression atmosphere of network public opinion, the correlation between aggressive traits and cyberbullying is not significant. The purpose of the moderating effect analysis is to explore when aggressive traits affect cyberbullying or when they have a significant impact (Muller et al., 2005). If the relationship between aggressive traits as the independent variable and cyberbullying as the dependent variable is affected by the third variable of beliefs about aggression, then beliefs about aggression are a mediating variable, representing a mechanism in which aggressive traits indirectly affect cyberbullying by influencing beliefs about aggression. The purpose of mediation effect analysis is to explore how aggressive traits as the independent variable affect cyberbullying as the dependent variable (Muller et al., 2005). If a model contains more than three variables as well as both moderation and mediation variables, these variables in the different position and role of model can produce different models. The mediated moderation model and the moderated mediation model contain two kinds of common models of moderation and mediation variables. Among them, the mediated moderation model implies that the effect of the independent variable on dependent variable is influenced by the moderator variable while the moderator effect (at least partially) is affected by the mediating variable (Baron & Kenny, 1986; Wen et al., 2012; Ye & Wen, 2013). That is to say, the mediated moderation model indicates that the effect of aggressive traits on cyberbullying is influenced by network public opinion, and the moderating effect (at least in part) works through beliefs about aggression. The moderated mediation model means that the independent variable influences the dependent variable through the mediating variable, and the mediation process is regulated by the moderating variable (Baron & Kenny, 1986; Wen et al., 2006; Ye&Wen, 2013). In other words, the moderated mediation model indicates that aggressive traits impact cyberbullying through beliefs about aggression, and this mediation process is moderated by network public opinion. However, the purposes and focuses of these two models are quite different, as are their arguments and explanations. The focus of the mediated moderation model is to consider whether the direction (positive or negative) and strength (strong or weak) of the relationship between aggression traits as the independent variable and cyberbullying as the dependent variable is affected by the network public opinion as the moderating variable, namely, the moderating effect. Secondly, it considers how the network public opinion of moderating variable works—that is, whether it works through beliefs about aggression as the mediating variable. The focus of the moderated mediation model is to consider the effect of the mechanism of aggression traits as the independent variable on cyberbullying as the dependent variable, namely, the mediation effect and, secondly, whether the mediation process is moderated—that is, when the mediation effect is stronger and when it is weaker ( HYPERLINK \l "bib62" \o "bib62" Ye&Wen, 2013).

The mediated moderation model can further explore the relationship between aggressive traits and cyberbullying and its mechanism, which means aggressive traits are one of the important risk factors for cyberbullying, preliminarily illustrates the conditions under which aggressive traits work, and also reveals how aggressive traits affect cyberbullying under different conditions. The moderated mediation model is more effective in explaining the phenomenon of cyberbullying than the pure moderation or mediation model. The mediated moderation model is designed to explain how aggressive traits and network public opinion interactively affect cyberbullying and whether beliefs about aggression mediate their interactive effect. The moderated mediation model can further explore how aggressive traits affect cyberbullying (the mediation mechanism) and under what conditions (the moderation mechanism). The mediation mechanism can answer how aggressive traits as the independent variable affect cyberbullying as the dependent variable, but it only focuses on the “process” and “commonness” of the occurrence of variable relations. It cannot answer who is more significant in terms of the effect of aggressive traits as the independent variable on cyberbullying as the dependent variable—that is, the “condition” and “personality” issues of the occurrence of variable relations. As far as the current study is concerned, the mediating effect of beliefs about aggression can only explain that it is the proximal factor between aggressive traits and cyberbullying; namely, beliefs about aggression mediate the effects of aggressive traits on cyberbullying. However, the indirect effect of beliefs about aggression may be moderated by other factors. That is, the indirect effect is more significant for an individual in a certain situation and may not be obvious for an individual in another situation. The moderated mediation model is designed to investigate the mediating effect of beliefs about aggression between aggressive traits and cyberbullying, and this mediation effect is moderated by network public opinion.

Based on the abovementioned theories and empirical evidences, the current study comprehensively investigated the effects of these variables of network public opinion, aggressive traits, and beliefs about aggression on cyberbullying and put forward five hypotheses, which were intended to test the two competitive models of mediated moderation and moderated mediation according to the general aggression model and the trait activation theory. In addition, the current study examined the roles of beliefs about aggression and network public opinion between aggressive traits and cyberbullying, which is conducive to in-depth understanding of the effect mechanism of aggressive traits on cyberbullying and the conditions of its occurrence, to provide effective theoretical basis for the prevention of and intervention in cyberbullying.