Elsevier

Computers & Education

Volume 57, Issue 4, December 2011, Pages 2224-2235
Computers & Education

Pre-service teachers’ perspectives on using scenario-based virtual worlds in science education

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2011.05.015Get rights and content

Abstract

This paper presents the findings of a study on the current knowledge and attitudes of pre-service teachers on the use of scenario-based multi-user virtual environments in science education. The 28 participants involved in the study were introduced to Virtual Singapura, a multi-user virtual environment, and completed an open-ended questionnaire. Data from the questionnaire indicated that gender and current computer game use were likely to affect the perceived benefits of using virtual worlds in a classroom setting. Behavior management was seen as being a constraining factor on a pre-service teacher’s willingness to use a virtual world in the future. Overall, the results of the study indicate that pre-service teachers as a result of their use of Virtual Singapura are both aware of virtual worlds and have a reasonable understanding of both their potential advantages and disadvantages within a classroom setting.

Highlights

► Pre-service teachers are more likely to see the benefit of ICT if taught within the context of a curriculum area. ► The greater the familiarity with computer games, the better a pre-service teacher's understanding of strength and limitations of virtual worlds in education. ► Pre-service teachers view the benefits of virtual worlds in science education in terms of visualization, motivation and learner-centered. ► Pre-service teachers perceive the issues or challenges of using virtual worlds in science education to be in terms of behavior management, not liking computers and a lack of resources.

Introduction

There is a growing body of research surrounding the use of scenario-based multi-user virtual environments (MUVEs) in inquiry learning in secondary school science education. Scenario-based MUVEs such as Quest Atlantis, River City and Virtual Singapura have been shown to be both highly motivating and challenging to students. These game-like environments afford learners with an opportunity to engage in a rich and dynamic learning experience that can help students engage with scientific concepts that are complex or difficult to grasp in two dimensions. Qualitative data to-date has shown that the value of these tools in engaging and maintaining student motivation is substantial (Bailenson et al., 2008, Barab et al., 2007, Barnett et al., 2001, Beylefeld and Struwig, 2007, Dede et al., 2005, Dickey, 2003, Gee, 2005, Jacobson et al., 2008, Shaffer and Gee, 2007, Squire et al., 2004).

In terms of pedagogical soundness, worlds such as Quest Atlantis, have been designed so that teachers can modify and adapt materials to suit the needs of their students and curriculum allowing for flexibility in the classroom (Barab et al., 2005, Squire, 2007). Many of the educational MUVEs including Wolf Quest, Quest Atlantis and Virtual Singapura are free to download and are contained environments meaning that teachers do not have to worry about either the expense of the software or the issue of privacy and child safety. These game-like environments differ from off-the-shelf games that have been used in education, such as Civilization III, in that they are developed specifically for use in educational contexts (Gee and Shaffer, 2010, Squire, 2007, Watson et al., 2011). Yet, despite the potential learning affordances of MUVEs and despite many of the environments being free to download, the use of such environments in Australian schools is minimal (Kennedy-Clark, Jacobson, & Reimann, 2010).

The role of teachers in facilitating the use of information and communication technologies (ICT) is pivotal in the successful implementation of a selected technology in a classroom. Yet many teachers are resistant to using such technologies as MUVEs, for reasons that include the additional time pressure to learn new skills, teacher self-efficacy, lack of technological support within the school, and concern over the pedagogical value of the technology (Barab et al., 1998, Becta, 2004, Dede, 1997, Henriques, 2002).

The purpose of this paper is to present the findings of a study with pre-service science teachers focusing on the use of a scenario-based MUVE to teach inquiry skills in secondary schools. The research questions raised in this study were:

  • 1.

    Does a pre-service teacher’s current com

  • puter game use and knowledge of virtual worlds have an impact on the perceived value of virtual worlds in education?

  • 2.

    What are the perceived barriers to the use of ICT in a classroom?

  • 3.

    Does the gender of a pre-service teacher impact upon the perceived value of virtual worlds in education?

The study investigates pre-service teachers’ current knowledge of virtual worlds, their attitudes toward using a virtual world in a classroom, and their understanding of a virtual world designed to develop inquiry skills.

This paper considers the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) which suggests that individuals make decisions rationally and systematically through the evaluation of the information available to them (Ajzen, 1985 Ajzen, 1991, Peach, 2009). TBP evaluates the factors that may result in a person’s intention to change, or in this case their intention to use virtual worlds in science education. The three elements that determine intention are behavioral beliefs (attitudes), normative beliefs (social norms) and control beliefs. Behavioral beliefs are beliefs about the favorable or unfavorable attitudes that a person has toward the likely outcome of a behavior. Normative beliefs refer to the perceived social pressure to perform or not perform an action. Finally, control beliefs refer to the perceived ease or difficulty of performing a behavior (Fig. 1).

TBP has been applied across a diverse range of fields. For example, studies have been undertaken in organizational management (Peach, 2009), on the intention of union workers to participate in employee actions (Dawkins & Frass, 2005) and on the intention to eat healthily (Conner, Norman, & Bell, 2002). It has not been widely used in education with a study by Pierce and Ball (2009) providing the most insight into how TBP can be applied to the factors that affect a teacher’s decision to whether or not integrate ICT into a mathematics class. In their study they found that teachers’ professional development programs need to address attitudes and perceptions as well as skills development in order to mitigate attitudinal barriers to the use of ICT in a classroom.

In a number of studies, only one or two rather than all three of the cognitive determinants (attitudes, social norms, and perceived behavioral control) relate to an intention to undertake a specific act (Ajzen, 1991) and the more positive the attitude toward the first two elements, behavioral beliefs and social norms, then it is more likely that the control beliefs will also be positive (Pierce & Ball, 2009). Okun and Sloane (2002) in their study on volunteering as a pro-social behavior found that perceived behavioral control or the extent that volunteering was achievable was the most significant determiner of the intention to volunteer. Peach (2009) found in her research into the application of TPB in organizational change that communication and participation strategies lead to positive reactions to organizational change. In this respect, the context will influence which of the cognitive determinants will be more representative of the group of people. For example, the intention to lose weight may have a different outcome in comparison to the intention to change workplace behavior. In the context of this study, it is held that if a pre-service teacher believes that there will be a positive outcome of using a virtual world in science education and if they believe that using the technology will garner the support of the school the more likely that they will believe that using the technology will be easier thus avoiding or circumventing perceived barriers (Ajzen, 1991, Pierce and Ball, 2009).

The role of ICT in science education may be characterized as a complex and dynamic relationship impacted upon by the technical capabilities of a school and its educators, the beliefs and self-efficacy of the educators, and the needs and capabilities of the students. Science education is often presented as a body of facts that needs to be remembered and it is linked to exams, curriculum content, text books, and paper-based representations of science (Siorenta & Jimoyiannis, 2008). There is a division between what scientists do in real life and how science education is presented in the classroom and many educators are aware of this divide, which results in a division between the practice of science and science education (la Velle, Wishart, McFarlane, Brawn, & John, 2007). However, it should also be noted that while many educators are aware of this divide, the issue of whether this divide is of concern has also been raised (Kirschner, 2010).

There is also a concern that using ICT in a classroom can change the classroom ecology and shift the dynamic of the environment (Kalogiannakis, 2010). It is this shift or change that causes a proportion of teachers to fear ICT (Forgasz & Griffith, 2006). Yet, ICT is not something that should be feared by teachers or institutions as it is not always transformative (de Winter, Winterbottom, & Wilson, 2010). Many forms of ICT, such as laptops, are somewhat normal or ubiquitous in many people’s lives and it is the lack of technology in the classroom that may, in fact, be the aberration. Watson et al. (2011) noted that classroom teachers were amenable to using games in the classroom; however, the perceived hurdles, such as fixed class schedules and lack of support, may impeded game or virtual world up-take in education.

Research studies on the integration of ICT in science education have identified several benefits for the use of ICT in classroom situations. For example, using ICT can make a lesson more interesting, can invigorate students and creates a divergence from daily teacher fronted lessons (Dede et al., 2005, Goldsworthy et al., 2000, Squire et al., 2004, de Winter et al., 2010). Moreover, using ICT resources, such as simulations and modeling, can result in better learning outcomes as students can visualize a situation or concept that may be difficult without additional support (Brack et al., 5–8 December, 2004, la Velle et al., 2007, Lowe, 2004, Webb, 2005, Zacharia, 2003). Pedagogical factors, such as joint task development, promoting self-management, supporting metacognition, fostering multiple perspectives, increased student–student and student-teacher time are further benefits that have been identified through the use of technology supported learning in science (Hennessy et al., 2005, Webb, 2005).

Using ICT is also a means of providing students with access to an experience that is not possible in the classroom is also presented in a number of studies. This benefit of ICT is due to the danger involved in the experience (e.g. engaging with contagious diseases such as those found in Virtual Singapura is not encouraged in classroom settings), the richness of the visual experience that cannot be accessed via two-dimensional communication, the amount of information available, the avoidance of real world messiness, the ability to foster scientific methods, and interactions with an unfamiliar environment (Bainbridge, 2007, Dede, 2000, Dickey, 2003, la Velle et al., 2007, Webb and Cox, 2004). In terms of inquiry learning, which is difficult to teach without support, using ICT for inquiry learning can result in improved student attitudes toward learning science (Ketelhut et al., 2006, Zacharia, 2003). MUVE technology and virtual worlds are presented as technologies to watch due to their motivational and engagement factors (Dede, 2000, Johnson et al., 2009). Yet, despite the myriad of benefits of using ICT in classroom settings there are numerous barriers and problems as teachers and institutions are not taking full advantage of the potentials of these technologies (Siorenta and Jimoyiannis, 2008, Webb and Cox, 2004, Zacharia, 2003).

There is a limited body of research on pre-service teacher training and pre-service teachers’ attitudes toward ICT – especially in regards to using virtual worlds in education. A pre-service teacher, in this instance, refers to an undergraduate or post-graduate student that is majoring in education that has not yet commenced classroom teaching. The limited and inadequate amount of training that pre-service teachers often receive before entering a classroom means that pre-service teachers, in many cases, do not feel that they have the technical support, the skills, or a pedagogical rationale for implementing ICT in the classroom (Angeli, 2004, Lee, 1997). Hence, in regards to the TPB, pre-service teachers may be entering the classroom with a pre-existing attitude toward ICT that may already be favorable or unfavorable as a result of the pre-service teacher training.

Henriques (2002) suggests that to overcome the negative attitudes to using ICT in the classroom, pre-service teachers need to see the use of technology in the context of science education, and to see the relationships that exist between the two. This is similar to the research undertaken by Hu and Fyfe (2010) who found that through giving students design tasks based on the technology, pedagogy, and content framework also known as TPACK or TPCK that the students’ confidence in using ICT across the curriculum increased by 47% between the pre- and post-tests. In this respect, ICT should be presented as both accessible and worthwhile to pre-service teachers, rather than just as a box ticking activity to show that graduates have achieved graduate standards. Pre-service teachers entering the school system interested in using technology in the classroom should be encouraged to explore this domain (de Winter et al., 2010). In this context, virtual worlds such as Virtual Singapura can bridge the gap between science education and technology by presenting teachers with a rich medium to present case studies and science based problems that are often free, easy to use, and provide students with an opportunity to interact with a motivating and engaging learning experience.

However, as Dede (1997) notes, in order for ICT to be seen as worthwhile and to address the negativity surrounding ICT implementation in schools, factors such as pedagogy, curriculum, assessment, and school organizations need to be addressed simultaneously rather than in a piecemeal fashion. Another factor that needs to be considered is pre-service teachers’ views on teaching as many pre-service teachers tend to maintain an ideological underpinning for their teaching, such as facilitating a student-centered classroom, yet when they enter the classroom they tend to use teacher-centered approaches. Hence, at this early stage in their teaching career their attitudes and values toward teaching have not yet solidified (Simmons et al., 1999). Changing the attitude of pre-service teachers needs to be supported in school and access to training and technologies such as virtual worlds needs to be sustainable both in higher education settings and in the classroom.

A MUVE is a virtual environment derived from game technology. A virtual world can be defined as ‘an electronic environment that visually mimics complex physical spaces, where people can interact with each other and with virtual objects, and where people are represented by a virtual character’ (Bainbridge, 2007). In the online environment, the evolution of virtual worlds began in the 1970s when text-based multiple-user dungeons developed into multiple-user dungeons object oriented which are based on fantasy role-playing games such as Dungeons and Dragons (Dickey, 2005). The development of Massively Multi-player Online Role Playing Games such as World of Warcraft resulted in a shift in how we perceive entertainment, with the use of computer games becoming one of the main forms of entertainment for teenagers in the United States (Egenfeldt-Nielsen, 2007). The development of educational MUVEs, such as River City and Quest Atlantis (Barab et al., 2007, Dieterle and Clarke, 2005, Ferdig, 2007, Ketelhut et al., 2006, Nelson, 2007) was seen as a means of transferring and translating the popularity of these role-playing game environments into a valuable learning experience.

One of the main features of a MUVE environment that makes it distinct from other virtual environments is the ability for a number of users to be present in the environment at one time and to be able to communicate with each other. Another feature is that users are represented by an avatar or virtual character. This avatar can interact with objects or intelligent agents within the world as well as other avatars (Dickey, 2003). The use of the term “game” is often used in this context as the technology used in virtual environments is often drawn from gaming technology, and “game” is also a user friendly term in that member of the general public can identify with the concepts of online gaming (Squire, 2007). This research will avoid the use of the term game to describe the scenario-based MUVE used in this study Virtual Singapura, as Virtual Singapura does not engage the use of features, such as scores, which are identifying markers of “game”.

As with most multi-player role-playing computer games a scenario-based MUVE is underpinned by a narrative that forms the basis of the learning experience. The benefit of using a narrative or scenario-based MUVE in an educational space is that learners can interact with an environment and be engaged in a narrative that may provide higher levels of engagement and motivation than a 2D textbook or website (Barab et al., 2009). The story or scenario for the virtual world lends itself to scientific inquiry learning in a MUVE. The scenario is complex and the environment is rich with information. Virtual Singapura simulates an authentic scientific problem wherein students are able to develop and test their own hypothesis, and are in control of where and how they collect and analyze data (Veletsianos and Doering, 2010, la Velle et al., 2007). The development of inquiry skills comes not through presenting a ‘correct’ answer, but rather through engaging in the process of exploring and addressing the problem. MUVEs can afford enhanced visualizations, multiple perspectives and can bring together a large group of students together for a collaborative experience, a situation that may be difficult to replicate in a normal classroom environment, but one which can result in a learner being more psychologically present (Bailenson et al., 2008, Gee, 2005).

Virtual Singapura is set in 19th century Singapore and is based on historical information about several disease epidemics (malaria, cholera, and tuberculosis) during that period. The students are transported back in time to help the Governor of Singapore, Sir Andrew Clarke, and the citizens of the city try and solve the problem of what is causing the illnesses. The supporting activities are designed to develop appropriate inquiry skills such as defining the scope of the problem, identifying of research variables, establishing and testing hypotheses, and presenting findings (Linn, Clark, & Slotta, 2003). In order to create an authentic learning experience, 19th century artefacts from Singapore have been included in the environment. These artefacts include historical 3D buildings and agents that represent different ethnic groups in Singapore at the time such as Chinese, Malay, Indian, westerners, and historic period photographs.

There have been a number of studies in recent years on the impact of gender in game use. Research into gender and game playing does suggest that boys and girls play the same games differently. Girls will play a game if there is not much else to do, while boys will play games as the first choice of entertainment; this is a view that supports the development of games for the girl game players (Kirriemuir & McFarlane, 2004). Squire et al. (2004) noted in their trial of Supercharged! that boys tend to play a game to win, and that after they have beaten the game the challenge decreases. However, girls tended to review their process and share their results, indicating that boys and girls do approach the games differently. Uptis (2001) in her research into the use of computers in design found that students used the technology in different ways and that girls, for the most part, enjoyed the social aspects of the process and production whereas the boys tended to play to beat the game. This is consistent with the findings of Squire et al. (2004), which suggests that when teachers plan to use MUVEs or game technology in the classroom that they should consider the different styles of game play, for example, Virtual Singapura has been designed not to have scores or levels to try to negate the need to beat the game.

The development of scenario-based MUVEs and their 3D immersive characteristics have been designed to encourage female participation in educational contexts. Several projects including Quest Atlantis, Urban Science, and the STAR Project have been developed with female participants’ preferences taken into consideration (Barab et al., 2005, Goldsworthy et al., 2000, Svarovsky and Shaffer, 2006). Quest Atlantis has been designed with girls as central characters, and all related products such as posters feature female characters as an inclusive measure. The result of this is evident in the rich involvement of female participants with 49% of players being female and 58% of e-mails being sent by females (Barab et al., 2005). The literature, thus, indicates that females are willing participants in use of MUVEs in a learning environment so long as the environment is designed with characteristics, such as female avatars and an authentic scenario, which will appeal to the female students.

Section snippets

Participants

This research study involved 28 participants from a pre-service science education course at The University of Sydney. There were 13 female participants, 13 male participants, and two participants who did not identify their gender. The participants had completed at least one in-school practicum and were from Bachelor of Education (18 participants) or Master of Teaching (10 participants) degree programs. None of the participants had ever undertaken work as a teacher within a secondary school.

Data collection

The

Results

The results of the data analysis contextual areas, which are the current knowledge of virtual worlds and games use and virtual worlds in education, clarity of the problem and the technical limitations of the world.

Current game use and knowledge and attitude to virtual worlds

The results of the questionnaire indicated that the pre-service teachers had a largely positive attitude toward the technology and that 71.4% of the pre-service teachers would consider using the technology in their classrooms. The main barriers to perceived control over the use of technology were apparent in questions 7 and 8. The lack of control was related to classroom management rather than being able to control the technology, which given the potential problems that could be encountered

Conclusions

This study sought to gain an understanding of how pre-service teacher attitudes to the use of virtual worlds in science education were related to their current understanding of virtual worlds and their experience in using Virtual Singapura. The use of the TPB to analyze the participants’ responses did provide an understanding of pre-service teacher’s perspectives of virtual world technology in science education. Due to the nature of the study, the impact of social norms did not seem to hold

Acknowledgements

The Centre for Computer Supported Cognition and Learning at the University of Sydney would like to acknowledge Singapore Learning Sciences Laboratory (National Institute of Education) and faculty in Computer Engineering and in Art, Design, and Media at Nanyang Technological University for their ongoing support in the use of Virtual Singapura

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