Elsevier

Computers & Education

Volume 57, Issue 3, November 2011, Pages 2118-2125
Computers & Education

How digital scaffolds in games direct problem-solving behaviors

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2011.05.022Get rights and content

Abstract

Digital systems offer computational power and instant feedback. Game designers are using these features to create scaffolding tools to reduce player frustration. However, researchers are finding some unexpected effects of scaffolding on strategy development and problem-solving behaviors. We used a digital Sudoku game named Professor Sudoku to classify built-in critical features, frustration control and demonstration scaffolds, and to investigate their effects on player/learner behaviors. Our data indicate that scaffolding support increased the level at which puzzles could be solved, and decreased frustration resulting from excessive numbers of retries. However, it also reduced the number of unassisted placements (i.e., independently filled cells), and increased reliance on scaffolding tools, both of which are considered disadvantageous for learning. Among the three scaffold types, frustration control reduced the potential for players to feel stuck at certain levels, but also reduced the frequency of use of critical feature-making tools, which are thought to have greater heuristic value. We conclude that the simultaneous provision of critical feature and frustration control scaffolds may increase player reliance on available support, thereby reducing learning opportunities. Providing players with critical features and demonstration scaffolds at the same time increases reliance on available support for some players, but for most it encourages the development of solving strategies.

Highlights

► We examine the effort of scaffolds in a puzzle game on player/learner behaviors. ► Our findings suggest mixed effects of scaffoldings on player learning potential. ► Frustration control scaffolds avoid users being stuck but hamper self-thinking. ► Demonstration scaffolds encourage the development of solving strategies.

Introduction

Learning environments that make use of digital games can be leveraged to incite learner motivation, increase focus, and disperse learning effects (Barab et al., 2005, Gee, 2003, Prensky, 2001). Rosas et al. (2003) surveyed research on applying digital games as instructional tools, and identified four dimensions of learning that games can support and strengthen: school achievement, cognitive abilities, learning motivation, and attention and concentration. According to a large-scale game-based instruction experiment in Great Britain, the general conclusion among most teachers and parents is that games can contribute to strategic thinking, communication planning, number application, negotiating, group decision-making, and data-handling skills (Kirriemuir & McFarlane, 2004). Other researchers have reported that games can create environments that promote active participation in problem solving (Garris, Ahlers, & Driskell, 2002) and meaningful learning (Kiili, 2005). According to Gredler (2003), learners who use educational games or simulations are required or encouraged to apply knowledge, skills, and strategies for executing their assigned roles and gaining the full benefits of experiential learning. Gee (2003) uses the term “learning machines” to describe games that do a good job of supporting learning mechanisms. Games in all formats can guide players through the process of discovering more advanced rules for problem solving. Digital games can offer challenging problems and provide opportunities for routinizing and automatizing solutions. For example, games that pit players against computers can help children develop mathematical reasoning skills by learning strategies that are modeled by machines (Houssart & Sams, 2008).

Wood, Bruner and Ross’s (1976) scaffolding concept is based on the learning theories of Vygotsky (1962), who is credited with the idea of a zone of proximal development (ZPD) that exists between learner ability to solve a problem alone, and the ability to solve it with assistance or guidance. Wood et al. (1976) described a learning process in which instructors provide temporary support to help students develop initial learning skills, and then gradually reduce support as students improve on their own. The temporary support (e.g., a scaffold) can come in the form of an instructional strategy or tool. In a ZPD, the learning process gradually evolves from interaction to internalization—a type of “responsibility transfer.” The overall goal is to help students get a better grasp of their own knowledge construction.

While scaffolds used to be provided by teachers or peer learners, they can now be programmed into computer software and digital games. Researchers who have analyzed the use of computers for assisted learning scaffolding include Davis and Miyake, 2004, Demetriadis et al., 2008, Hmelo and Day, 1999, Yelland and Masters, 2007, and Zydney (2010). Salen and Zimmerman (2004) describe the instant feedback, computation power, graphical representation, and interactivity of digital environments as positive characteristics in terms of player data collection and rule induction. They believe that players who are given sufficient support and guidance are less likely to become frustrated by repeated failures, or to give up under excessive cognitive loads. Fisch (2005) suggests that sufficient scaffolding can help players refine their strategies, resulting in greater learning effectiveness.

Many support tools found in digital games were not specifically designed for learning purposes, and therefore cannot be analyzed as learning scaffolds. According to Bos (2001), digital game designers are skilled at utilizing scaffolding theory, but their focus is on preventing frustration instead of providing support for learning. Thus, their scaffolding approaches have the potential to act as learning barriers. Since they have a strong interest in making sure that players do not become too frustrated and give up, game designers are adept at devising supportive tools for overcoming bottlenecks (Davis & Miyake, 2004). Educational goals are different, yet some scholars suggest that scaffolds can help students attain a higher level of learning in self-regulated contexts (Hannafin et al., 1999, Jackson et al., 1994). Our goal in this study is to determine whether a scaffolding support structure in one digital game is capable of either actively increasing learning effectiveness, or passively decreasing the potential for frustration.

From the perspective of constructive learning, scaffold type and the timing of scaffold presentation and/or removal are equally important. The list of scaffold types includes recruitment, reduction of degree of freedom, direction maintenance, critical feature marking, frustration control, and demonstration (Wood et al., 1976). Kintsch (1991) emphasizes that computer learning environments should offer “temporary support” to help learners perform tasks beyond their capacities, rather than simply give intelligence for the purpose of directing or monitoring learning progress. According to Vygotsky (1978), scaffolds can help learners transcend the gap between prior knowledge and current goals, but as familiarity with learning material increases, scaffolds should be removed. Furthermore, since learners are capable of independently acquiring new knowledge and skills without having to rely on instructional assistance (Greenfield, 1984), it is important to avoid providing scaffolds too early or noticeably. This is especially true for educational environments, but less so for recreational gaming.

For this project, we used Professor Sudoku (a digital version of the popular Sudoku game) to investigate the effects of built-in scaffolding on gaming and learning behaviors. Sudoku has been described as helping players develop logical reasoning skills (Baek et al., 2008, Mepham, 2005). A typical Sudoku game has 9 grids of 3 x 3 cells, with some cells already filled in with numbers. An example of a Sudoku puzzle is shown in Fig. 1. The game objective is to fill in the rest of the empty cells with numbers from 1 through 9, with each digit appearing only once in each row, column, and grid. Sudoku rules are clear and simple. The digital version does not require complex computing skills, but does require the ability to reason and to think logically. Players must use a divergent thinking approach to identify possible solutions, and a convergent thinking approach to select the best one. This explains why Teacher Magazine, published by the UK government, believes that Sudoku should be introduced into classrooms (Holden, 2005).

Solving strategies are also taken into consideration by digital and non-digital game designers in terms of checkpoints and support tools. A solving strategy is defined as a plan for problem-solving actions derived through mental effort to change the status of a problem. The list of general solving strategies includes generate-and-test, means-end analysis, analogical reasoning, and brainstorming, among others (Schunk, 1996). Depending on the strategy in question, scaffolds can either provide guidance or increase reliance. Using Sudoku puzzles as an example, most players (especially newbies) initially apply a direct elimination technique, filling in numbers in ways that do not violate the rules. Players who proceed from one level to the next have the potential to develop higher-order puzzle-solving skills.

We had two goals in mind when designing this study: identifying scaffold types that players can actually benefit from, and exploring their effects on solving strategy development and learning. By manipulating combinations of Professor Sudoku scaffolds, we observed which scaffolds were best in terms of preventing frustration, and tried to determine whether such temporary support is capable of inducing self-learning and supporting strategy development. Since games represent a kind of activity in which process is more important than result, we focused on identifying actual or potential links between gaming behavior variation and scaffold type. In summary, our intent was to analyze the effects of different scaffolds on player gaming behaviors, strategy changes according to different scaffolds, and usage differences and interactive effects associated with different scaffold types.

Section snippets

Research design

Many free Sudoku programs are available on the Internet. We selected Professor Sudoku because it has a digital interface that clearly presents visual support (including “contrast grid” and “highlight specific number” features), and shows the availability of problem-solving tools (“check errors,” “show number of cells left for each number,” “generate candidates,” “show possible cells,” “show hints for the next step” and “show detailed hints for the next step”) (Fig. 2).

Professor Sudoku contains

Pilot study

In March, 2010 we conducted a pilot study with twelve fifth-grade students attending a school in northern Taiwan. For this part of our project we used the 6 x 6-cell version of Professor Sudoku, based on our perception of the skill level of fifth-grade students. All participants were given a five-minute introduction to Sudoku rules and playing methods, and then allowed to play the game for 20 min. A follow-up test was conducted the following month, with the same 12 students given access to

Analysis

We recruited 213 students from 7 sixth-grade classes in an elementary school located in Hsinchu City, Taiwan. They were initially asked to play Professor Sudoku without scaffolds for 20 min. Based on results from these games, we selected 90 students whose gaming behaviors and strategies were similar to those observed in the pilot study students, and randomly divided them into three groups. We made every possible effort to maintain equal percentages of girls and boys in each group. Acknowledging

Discussion

Our results indicate that learners who have scaffolding support are more able to solve game puzzles, which supports Ma, Williams, Prejean and Richard’s (2007) suggestion that educational game developers add different types of scaffolding to their designs. According to Kiili (2005), prior learner knowledge and experience affect game world experiences and perceptions. When game challenges significantly exceed player skill level, anxiety arises. Game system guidance or help from other learners

Conclusion

Our findings suggest mixed effects of supportive tools on player learning potential, sometimes exerting a positive effect in the form of reducing frustration, at other times a negative effect in the form of increased reliance on available support. Our data also support the idea that different scaffold types play different roles in learning. Note that all of the scaffolding tools used in this study were designed to assist recreational game players, with no consideration for their effects on

Acknowledgments

This research was supported in part by the Republic of China National Science Council (grants NSC96-2520-S-009-004-MY3 and NSC 96-2520-S-126-002-MY3).

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