The relationship between co-playing and socioemotional status among older-adult game players

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.entcom.2021.100414Get rights and content

Highlights

  • Co-players showed higher socioemotional status than solo-players and non-players.

  • Co-players expressed more positive video game perceptions than other player types.

  • Play setting had no significant effect on the socioemotional status among co-players.

  • Positive perceptions mediated between play frequency and socioemotional status.

Abstract

This study aimed to investigate differences in socioemotional status and perceptions of video games among older adult co-players, solo players, and non-players of video games. We collected data on these three groups through a survey of 190 Korean participants between the ages of 50 and 69 years (Mean age = 59.2). Results showed that co-players expressed a higher positive affect and well-being, higher companionship and emotional support, and more positive perceptions of video games than solo players and non-players. However, there was no difference in positive affect and well-being between solo players and non-players, and solo-players experienced higher levels of companionship and emotional support than non-players. Among co-players, there was no significant difference in socioemotional status between those who mainly played in co-located settings and those who played in Internet-mediated settings. In addition, positive perception mediated between frequency of game play and positive socioemotional status within playing groups. We subsequently examined ways to promote co-playing in older adults and highlight the importance of considering the social context when designing video games for older adults.

Introduction

A remarkable number of older adults play video games worldwide. According to American Association of Retired Persons (AARP) research in the United States (US) [1], the number of gamers aged 50 years or older is increasing, and was estimated at 44% in 2019 from 38% in 2016; moreover, this group spends an average of five hours a week playing games. A similar survey conducted in 2020 showed that 56.8% of Koreans aged from 50 to 59 played video games. This showed an increase from 48.3% in 2016 for that age group, along with 35% of those aged 60 to 65 in 2020, which also rose from 26.4% in 2016 [2], [3]. Although a notable number of older adults are playing video games, previous research on players’ psychological status mostly targeted children and adolescents. The research focused on the problematic use of video games and its negative relationship with psychological functioning, such as social competence [4], [5], [6], affectivity, coping, and self-esteem [7], in addition to its link to depression [8], [9], anxiety symptoms [9], loneliness [5], and aggression [10].

On the other hand, a relatively small number of game studies target older adults, and those that do, generally focus on the cognitive and physical benefits of video games [11], [12], [13], [14], [15], [16]. Specifically, video games are claimed to improve a wide range of cognitive skills such as memory [17], [18], visuospatial skills [17], [19], attention [20], [21], [22], [23], motor skills [24] and cognitive control [25]. In addition, previous studies have shown that older adults enjoy the sociability of games [26], [27], although other studies have reported that the majority of older adults play video games alone because they mostly play puzzle and strategy games, which typically do not offer multi-player components [13], [28], [29]. However, little research has addressed the relationship between game playing and psychological status related to socioemotional factors, especially the condition of “playing together” for this age group.

Furthermore, most research on older adults’ gaming has been conducted in North America and Europe. However, this study targeted older adults in Korea and reflected the sociocultural context of Korea, which has a collectivist culture that emphasizes “we” and “connectivity” among group members [30]. Furthermore, Korea has the world’s fourth-largest gaming market and a player-friendly environment that includes high-speed internet, high smartphone penetration rates, and many internet cafes throughout the country where video games are played [31], [32]. Video game research has been largely limited to the younger generation, but Korea’s highly connected environment through advanced digital technology is also advantageous in exploring the game playing experience of older adults. The purpose of this study is to investigate the relationship between the social aspects of video game playing, the perception of games, and the socioemotional status of older adults. Through this study, we seek to explore the potential of video games as a medium not only to overcome social isolation and loneliness of older adults, but also to effectively extend social connectivity through active participation in the new digital culture.

Zimmerman [33] suggested that “play” should be defined as “the free space of movement within a more rigid structure. Play exists both because of and also despite the more rigid structures of a system.” He also defined “games” as “a voluntary interactive activity, in which one or more players follow rules that constrain their behavior, enacting an artificial conflict that ends in a quantifiable outcome.” Following the Zimmerman definition, Esposito [34] defined a “video game” as “a game which we play thanks to an audiovisual apparatus and which can be based on a story.” He defined an audiovisual apparatus as an electronic system with computing capabilities, input devices (controllers, mouse, etc.) and output devices (screen, speakers, etc.).

However, defining “playing video games together” or “co-playing video games” is not simple, and there is no clear definition in existing literature. Pearce [27] argued that although middle-aged and elderly individuals tend to play single-player video games by themselves, they are community-minded and participate in many social activities related to games. This study showed that while 88% of respondents primarily played single-player games, a similar number (80%) said that they belonged to a guild or gaming community. These results highlight that playing a single-player game does not necessarily mean playing alone. Stenros, Paavilainen and Mäyrä [35] argued that various social interactions can occur even in single-player games. For example, a person could play in single-player mode while communicating with others, in which case, playing could represent an act of performance by the game player, and the onlooker could enjoy vicarious play.

Similarly, playing multi-player games and co-playing are not necessarily equivalent. Multi-player games with minimal social interaction are also possible. A massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG) is a form of computer entertainment that connects hundreds or thousands of people from all over the world at the same time through the Internet [36]. As the most prominent example of social game play, MMORPG promotes diverse cooperative and competitive social interactions such as slaying monsters, attacking castles, scavenging for goods, and trading merchandise in a virtual world [37]. However, gamers can play “alone together,” as when they play MMORPGs independently without joining social groups [38].

In addition, what relationships can be viewed as co-playing partners should be considered. Gamers can play games with “friends on social media” or a “game buddies” even if they have never actually met [39]. Although social interaction occurs only online, sharing one’s identity and building a connection through gaming can function as having a co-player. However, if an individual simply plays with a randomly matched opponent every time, we can classify this gamer as a solo player. Therefore, we propose that co-playing involves an awareness that a user is playing with another person and building a relationship while playing a video game. This subjective awareness is more important for sociability than whether someone is playing in a multi-player or a single-player mode.

Sensing a co-player’s presence in both online and offline contexts can enhance players’ emotional experience [40]. If one game player is visibly having fun, this emotion can influence the other, and this process promotes a sense of belonging and a positive affective state during co-play [41]. However, social experiences can also cause confusion and frustration, especially when they involve poor social dynamics and unpleasant competition [40], [42]. To evaluate the effects of the co-player’s presence, previous studies conducted experiments comparing competing with a human and competing with a computer. Young adults showed increased engagement [43], positive affect, competence [44], presence, enjoyment, flow [45], and immersion [46] when they realized that they were competing with a person rather than a computer. An experiment examining older adults also showed that playing with a partner was more enjoyable than playing alone [47].

Additionally, Gajadhar et al. [48] compared older adults’ experience of social presence and enjoyment in three co-play settings: playing with a computer-controlled player (virtual), playing with a human player in different location via the internet (mediated), and playing with a human player in same room at the same time (co-located). Social presence and enjoyment were significantly higher in co-located settings. However, unlike the case of young adults [49], mediated co-play did not make a meaningful difference in older adults’ sense of social presence and positive affect compared to virtual co-play. Authors mentioned that older adults could have negative perceptions about mediated co-play over the Internet. However, other studies have shown that co-located or mediated settings have little significance, and the results may vary depending on the game’s social interaction patterns and the richness of the interface [35], [41].

The “activity theory of aging” can point to a positive relationship between playing video games and socioemotional status. This theory explains the positive relationship between social activities and life satisfaction in old age. In particular, studies have shown that informal activity has a positive effect on life satisfaction and solitary activity does not have a positive relationship with life satisfaction [50], [51]. Furthermore, Lam and Garcia [52] found that solitary activities were linked to lower levels of well-being and higher levels of negative emotions. Video gaming is an informal leisure activity that can be played both alone and with others. Therefore, it can be expected that playing games together would have a positive effect on life satisfaction. However, it is difficult to infer from existing studies if solo play has a positive relationship with life satisfaction.

In addition, previous studies on the joint attention theory suggest that the ability of early joint attention later contributes to social and emotional competencies [53], [54]. One of the basic conditions for playing games together is joint attention or shared attention between two people. The joint attention theory emphasizes eye gaze behaviors in co-attended condition; however, Shteynberg [55] suggested that shared attention is possible in the absence of physical co-presence due to the emergence of mass media technologies. He assumed that the shared attention mechanism can have wide ranging implications for memory, motivation, judgment, emotion, and behavior. According to Stevens and Penuel [56], joint attention and shared attention contribute to the development of a new concept of joint media engagement (JME), which refers to spontaneous and designed experiences of people using media together. Previous research revealed that the impact of JME was positive on the overall parent-child relationship [57]. JME of mobile devices was negatively related to parent-child conflict [58] and promoted close family bonding [59].

Generally, video games are technologies that can help people to maintain social connections and increase the frequency and meaningfulness of social interactions [41], [46], [60], [61]. Video games are a means of communication between friends and family, and people use games because games are associated with lower communication costs than direct methods such as phone calls and email; for example, visiting a friend’s virtual village and leaving gifts and notes is considered a free and easy way to contact other players [61]. Zhang and Kaufman [62] also found that increased time playing MMORPGs was associated with greater bonding, and enjoyment of relationships was a significant factor in promoting older adults’ bridging and bonding.

Therefore, video games can be an alternative leisure activity for older adults who live apart from their families or who face mobility challenges. De Schutter and Vanden Abeele [42] suggested that older adults derive meaning from games due to their recognition that games can foster family connectivity, introduce them to new cultures, and help them to overcome loneliness. In addition, Osmanovic and Pecchioni [63] suggested that co-playing between older adults and their younger family members can foster relationships while producing positive emotions for individuals of both generations. Moreover, co-playing can promote conversation among family members. Talking about the game itself can transition into small talk and the discussion of important issues [63]. From a similar perspective, previous studies have highlighted intergenerational play and suggested that video games could be useful in fostering relationships across generational divides [64], [65], [66], [67].

Some studies have examined the relationship between playing video games and socioemotional benefits for older adults, but their results were not conclusive. In a study of Canadian gamers [13], survey respondents self-reported lower socioemotional benefits than cognitive benefits. This survey merely asked if there was a socioemotional benefit to video games rather than measuring participants’ socioemotional status. A survey in the US showed that older adults who played video games regularly or occasionally have a higher sense of wellbeing, have lower negative affect and less depression than those who do not play games [68]. Zhang and Kaufman [69] also found that older adults’ socioemotional well-being is related to the quality of guild play and their enjoyment of relationships in the context of MMORPGs. In addition, some studies found that older adults’ loneliness decreased while social and psychological well-being increased in interventions that involved playing the console game Wii Sports [70], [71]. However, there was not a study that clearly addressed socioemotional differences according to the social conditions of playing, such as “playing games together,” “playing games alone,” and “not playing games.”

Regarding genre preference, older adults tend to prefer easy and accessible games, such as casual games and puzzle games [2], [13], [29], [68], [72], [73]. However, Pearce [27] argued that they also enjoy games that are somewhat challenging and narratively rich. Pearce also mentioned that older adults tend to dislike fighting or racing games that require speed and quick reflexes. Older adults mainly play video games for relaxation, social exchange, and cognitive-ability training and to escape reality [63], [72], [73], [74]. Previous researchers assumed that older adults would prefer cooperative games to competitive games [27], [47], [63]. When designing games for older adults, previous studies suggested incorporating a cooperative multiplayer condition that emphasizes connection, solidarity, and social enjoyment [48], [75], [76].

Perceived benefits of video games are an important factor in determining active video game usage among older adults [72]. This coincides with the existing theory that perceived usefulness is important when older adults decide whether to adopt a new technology [77], [78]. Additionally, De Schutter and Brown [79] emphasized that older adults appreciate not only the fun of games but also the opportunities they afford for personal growth and benefits. They also discovered that older game players also saw games as an opportunity to learn new technologies and cultures.

However, older adults tend to have more negative attitudes toward video games than younger generations. Older adults are more likely than younger adults to agree with the statements, “people who play violent games are more likely to be violent themselves” and “video games are a waste of time.” On the other hand, younger adults are more likely to express positive attitudes such as “video games help to develop problem-solving and strategic thinking skills” and “video games promote teamwork and communication” [80]. Kim and Doh [81] also found a generation gap between adolescents and parents regarding video game perceptions. They presented people’s negative perceptions towards games, such as increasing violence and addiction, declining sociability, and derealization. On the other hand, people also expressed positive perceptions of video games, such as the games provided opportunities for new experiences, expanding self-understanding, social skills training, and educational benefits [81]. In addition, Ferguson, Nielsen, and Maguire [82] suggested that older adults’ negative perception towards games is mainly abstract. In their study, after older adults played particular games, perception towards those games were less negative than perception towards general games. Therefore, to understand older adults’ video gaming behavior, their positive or negative perceptions toward video games must be considered.

Section snippets

Research objectives

The main purpose of this study is to investigate the relationship between co-playing and socioemotional status among older adults. Socioemotional status refers to psychological functioning related social and emotional status, such as positive affect and well-being, companionship, emotional support, and social isolation [68], [69], [83]. Allaire et al. [68] emphasized socioemotional status as the most important indicator of successful aging, and they found that older adult gamers have higher

Participants

All participants were Koreans recruited via Dataspring, a company that offers an online survey platform and online panels. Online panels are composed of registered individuals who agree to occasionally participate in online surveys [85], [86]. When registered as a panel member through the online survey platform, his or her demographic information is collected. If a specific group is then required for a study, the survey is sent only to this subgroup [85], [86]. There are numerous advantages of

Participants’ overall game usage and perceived difficulties

The most popular platform among participants for playing video games was mobile devices such as smartphones and tablet PCs. Among all participants (n = 190), 63.1% of participants had experience with playing mobile games, and 46.3% had played online game using PCs. The use of PC package games (17.9%), arcade games (15.3%), and console games (13.2%) was relatively low. The most popular video game genres were puzzle games and online board games (Fig. 1).

Among those who had experience playing

Discussion

This study aimed to investigate how co-playing and socioemotional status were related in older adults, and differences in socioemotional status between co-players who play games in co-located setting and those who play games in mediated setting. In addition, we studied how frequency of game play, video game perceptions, and socioemotional status were related. Game preference and perceived difficulties among older adults was also investigated. Based on the results, we discussed the possibility

Limitations and future works

Though we found significant results about the relationship between co-playing and socioemotional status in older adults, some limitations of our study should be considered. First, the results did not prove a causal relationship, and we cannot ignore the possibility that people with high socioemotional status are more likely to play video games together. In addition, it is possible that confounding variables such as personality types (extrovert or introvert), and social network (size, density

Conclusion

Older adults are becoming active consumers of video games, but games designed for them are currently very limited. Game design focusing on reinforcing social relationship and geared toward intergenerational play could benefit older generations. More research is needed on the psychological effects of games for older adults and on how game design could promote fun, immersion, cognitive function, and improved socioemotional status in this population. This study has begun to fulfill this need and

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgement

This research is supported by the Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism (MCST) and Korea Creative Content Agency (KOCCA) in the Culture Technology (CT) Research & Development Program of (Project no. R2019020010).

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