Assessing alfalfa production under historical and future climate in eastern Canada: DNDC model development and application
Introduction
Alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) is the most widely grown forage legume worldwide and plays a key role in the development of sustainable cropping and livestock production systems (Crews and Peoples, 2004; Castonguay et al., 2006; Thivierge et al., 2016). Alfalfa contributes to sustainable agricultural systems by improving soil quality, increasing water infiltration and soil water storage, reducing soil erosion, and reducing nutrient losses (e.g., N2O fluxes and NO3− leaching) (Sarrantonio and Gallandt, 2003; Confalonieri and Bechini, 2004; Blackshaw et al., 2010). There is considerable interest in maximizing economic return and minimizing environmental cost for cropping systems used in dairy livestock production where the alfalfa crop is often an intergral component (Confalonieri and Bechihi, 2004; Brown, 2009). In eastern Canada, perennial forage crops account for about 40% of total agricultural land (2.1 million ha) with an annual estimated farm value of 1.3 billion Can$ (Statistics Canada, 2001; Bélanger et al., 2006). It has been shown that the yield and N content of wheat following alfalfa was increased compared to wheat following a canola control (Bullied et al., 2002). Compared to monocultural corn, alfalfa in rotation with corn increased soil organic carbon, increased corn yields, reduced N fertilizer rate and decreased N2O emissions from agricultural fields (MacKenzie et al., 1998; Gregorich et al., 2001). In addition, Jarecki et al. (2018) noted that for corn rotations that included alfalfa, an increase in soil carbon and corn yields was observed as compared to monoculture corn and that these increases continued under future climate scenarios whereas in the monoculture system no further change was realized.
A major challenge for perennial crops in northern regions is the harsh overwintering conditions that contribute to frequent stand losses and yield reduction in Canada (Suzuki, 1972; Ouellet, 1976; Bélanger et al., 2006), several regions of the United States (Barnhart et al., 2004; Castonguay et al., 2006), and Northern Europe (Eagles et al., 1997). The winterkill of perennial crops is largely affected by climatic conditions including subfreezing temperatures, lack of snow cover, and ice encasement (Ouellet, 1976; Schwab et al., 1996; Bélanger et al., 2006). Cold tolerance of cultivars is the capacity of plants to tolerate subfreezing temperatures which can significantly influence the winter survival of perennial crops (Bélanger et al., 2002; Castonguay et al., 2011). Previous studies assessed the effects of environmental factors on the survival of winter-sensitive forage species including alfalfa under both natural and controlled conditions (Paquin and Mehuys, 1980; McKenzie and McLean, 1984; Schwab et al., 1996; Bélanger et al., 2014). The reported correlations between climate variables and winter damages were used to explore optimal climatic conditions (e.g., temperature, precipitation) for winter survival (Ouellet, 1976; Bélanger et al., 2002; Castonguay et al., 2011), and to develop appropriate algorithms for modelling winter hardiness and injury (Kanneganti et al., 1998a, b).
Changes in temperature, precipitation, and atmospheric CO2 concentration influence crop growth by impacting the rate of photosynthesis, respiration, and crop water use efficiency (WUE) along with influencing soil biological and chemical transformations of C and N (Guo et al., 2010; Wang et al., 2014; Long et al., 2015). Alfalfa, a C3 legume species, benefits from elevated atmospheric CO2 due to increased photosynthesis (Morgan et al., 2004) and improved water use efficiency (Leakey et al., 2009; Barton et al., 2011). Many forage species, including alfalfa, are sensitive to drought, and would be affected by future changes in precipitation rate and pattern (Aranjuelo et al., 2007; Thivierge et al., 2016). The positive response to increased CO2 concentration might be offset by an increased temperature, increased evapotranspiration or reduced precipitation (Hatfield et al., 2011; Lee et al., 2013; Piva et al., 2013). Climate change may therefore have greatly varying effects on alfalfa production depending on the selected cultivars, management, and soil and climatic conditions (Izaurralde et al., 2011; IPCC, 2012; Thivierge et al., 2016).
Process-based models have been widely employed across diverse agroecosystems to estimate crop production, hydrologic processes, and nutrient cycling (Jones et al., 2003; Williams et al., 2008; Li et al., 2012; Holzworth et al., 2014). The DeNitrification-DeComposition (DNDC) model is an example of a well-established tool used to simulate crop growth and development, GHG emissions and water quality in crop, livestock and forest systems (Li et al., 1992a, b; Smith et al., 2013; Congreves et al., 2016). The DNDC model (Li et al., 1992a, b) was initially developed to predict greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from agricultural soils and was expanded to simulate soil C&N cycling and nitrate leaching (Li et al., 2006) and more recently to simulate nutrient cycling for full farm facility and livestock systems (Li et al., 2012). The simulation of crop growth has advanced over the last 25 years (Zhang and Niu, 2016) and certain versions of DNDC use detailed approaches for simulating physiological processes such as Crop-DNDC (Zhang et al., 2002). Several countries have developed regional versions of DNDC to improve the predictions of their agricultural systems (Brown et al., 2002; Leip et al., 2011; Smith et al., 2013; Gilhespy et al., 2014; Li et al., 2017) including a Canadian version which has been used to simulate crop, soil and plant processes under cool climate conditions (Kröbel et al., 2011; Smith et al., 2013; Dutta et al., 2016; He et al., 2018). Currently, the model algorithms have been calibrated and validated to characterize Canadian growing conditions including sub-models for crop growth (Kröbel et al., 2011), soil organic C dynamics (Smith et al., 2012), N2O emission (Uzoma et al., 2015), evapotranspiration (Dutta et al., 2016), NH3 volatilization (Congreves et al., 2016), and soil temperature (Dutta et al., 2018). Much of the development work has been conducted through comparison with other modeling frameworks, in particular with DayCent, DSSAT and RZWQM2 (Grant et al., 2016; Dutta et al., 2017; Guest et al., 2017; Smith et al., 2019) along with the cooperation with the primary US developers of DNDC.
The current DNDC model, however, is limited in its ability to simulate perennial crop growth, especially regrowth after cutting and in subsequent seasons considering winterkill impacts. This limits the application of the model for exploring scenarios under livestock-based systems that include forages. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to (1) improve alfalfa growth and development in the DNDC model using measured biomass and yield data under various soil and climate conditions; (2) compare performance of the revised and default versions for simulating long-term alfalfa production, soil temperature and moisture and; (3) assess projected climate change impacts on alfalfa production including winterkill in eastern Canada.
Section snippets
Research site and experiment
Measurements of aboveground biomass during the growth cycles at one location in eastern Canada were used independently to develop a new phenological growth curve and then validate this new growth curve. Alfalfa was seeded in 2014 at the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) greenbelt farm southwest of Ottawa (45°18′N, 75°45′W) (Fig. 1). Aboveground biomass samples were taken between 2 and 8 times in each of three growth cycles in the seeding year, and four growth cycles in the first (2015) and
Aboveground biomass during growth cycles
The calibration of the default DNDC model resulted in “good” or “fair” agreements between the simulated and measured alfalfa aboveground biomass based on the values of NSE > 0 and d index ≥ 0.8, but the alfalfa aboveground biomass of the spring regrowth was underestimated in 2015 (first post-seeding year) and 2016 (second post-seeding year) (Fig. 2 and A.1, Table 3). The improved DNDC model performed very well in simulating alfalfa aboveground biomass for all years with NSE > 0.9, d > 0.9, and
Conclusions
The DNDC model was modified to improve alfalfa growth simulation using measured biomass and yield data in eastern Canada. The results demonstrated that the improved model with enhanced alfalfa growth algorithms showed statistically better performance compared to the default model in most biophysical variables. The simulated soil temperature had “good” agreements with the measured values with better simulation for improved DNDC. In addition, the DNDC model predicted soil water contents well in
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the financial support of Science and Technology Branch of Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada. We also gratefully thank Ray Desjardins for guidance and Devon Worth for the technical support.
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