International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation
Simple and effective monitoring of historic changes in nearshore environments using the free archive of Landsat imagery
Introduction
The nearshore environments of East Africa contain numerous resources crucial to the economy of the region, including hundreds of fish and invertebrate species that are either exported or consumed locally (Gössling et al., 2004, Torell et al., 2007), mangrove trees that are harvested for construction or left standing for shoreline protection, as well as coral reefs and white beaches that attract millions of tourists every year (United Nations, 2002). Pressures on these resources have intensified along with increases in the human population (McClanahan et al., 1999), making appropriate coastal planning and management crucial for sustainable development (Cohen et al., 1997, Small and Nicholls, 2003). Information on the magnitude and spatial location and extent of changes in the nearshore environment, either natural or resulting from human impacts, will therefore be essential for the development of management responses. Such information, however, can be difficult and expensive to generate, especially in the least developed regions of Africa where the nearshore environment is most crucial for local livelihoods. The time series of data necessary to monitor environmental change are usually only available for a few sites located in easily accessible locations (Gullström et al., 2002), and research funding and capacity is often too limited to expand in situ monitoring. The recently released archive of Landsat imagery is an alternative data source, one that is both temporally and spatially extensive and now freely available for download over the Internet (http://glovis.usgs.gov/). The archive contains imagery from 1972 to the present, and covers most coastal regions of the world (Arvidson et al., 2001). With very limited processing, change detection using this imagery can provide scientists and managers with the necessary information on environmental change in otherwise data-poor areas.
In this study, we investigate what changes are identifiable in the tropical nearshore environment with a time series of Landsat imagery, focusing on the three major living substrate types in this environment: corals, seagrasses and algae. We use 27 Landsat images covering the period from 1984 to 2009, along with recent field data (from 2007 to 2008), to assess long-term trends in these three substrate types around two small islands in Zanzibar. In addition, we assess the magnitude of seasonal variations in substrate reflectance and its effect on interpretations of the time series of Landsat images, and we assess whether the use of supervised classification provides information in addition to what can be obtained by visual inspection of true-colour composites.
Section snippets
Study area
Zanzibar consists of two main islands, Unguja and Pemba, with numerous smaller islands surrounding them. We focus our study on the shallow (<10 m depth) inter-tidal and sub-tidal areas around two small islands, Chumbe and Bawe, both located off the west coast of Unguja, the main island of Zanzibar (Fig. 1). The nearshore areas around Chumbe and Bawe islands represent two extremes of human exploitation. Bawe Island, located 5 km from Zanzibar Town, is a popular fishing ground, visited daily by
Data and methods
A total of 27 Landsat images were used in this study (Table 1), all freely available for download from the Landsat archive. Images were preprocessed to the 1G, 1Gt or 1T levels (USGS, 2009), technical details for Landsat imagery are provided in Table 2.
All images were geometrically corrected to the 2009 image with <20 m RMSE. In addition to our study area, the full Landsat scenes (path 166, row 64) also cover Unguja and nearby islets, the southern part of Pemba Island, and part of the Tanzanian
Assessment of seasonal changes in the nearshore environment
The 10 images of Bawe Island and the surrounding area from 2004 are shown in Fig. 2.
Although no general pattern of seasonal change is seen in Fig. 2, several areas display variations in brightness throughout 2004. The seemingly stochastic changes correspond to variations in tidal height at the time of image acquisition, which could not be adequately corrected for with the manual contrast enhancement. However, one area northeast of the island, highlighted with a red circle in Fig. 2, is
Discussion
What changes in the nearshore environment were identifiable in the Landsat imagery, and was there a significant difference between the quick and simple use of true-colour composites, and the more time-consuming use of supervised classifications?
The shifting spatial extent of seagrass meadows seen around Chumbe Island was easily identified in the true-colour composites, and also seen in the supervised classifications, although somewhat confused by misclassifications between “Seagrass” and
Conclusion
In this study, we have outlined a simple method for investigating historic changes in a tropical nearshore environment containing coral reefs and seagrass beds, using a type of dataset typically available to researchers at minimum cost: a set of (free) historic Landsat images, and a set of recent field observations. Results indicate that changes in the spatial extent of seagrass meadows are easy to identify on true-colour composites of Landsat imagery, whereas subtle changes in algal and coral
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the assistance provided to us by the Institute of Marine Sciences (IMS) in Zanzibar and the GEF/World Bank funded Coral Reef Targeted Research project, and acknowledge helpful comments from two anonymous reviewers.
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