Abstract
Occupancy detection is one of the many applications of Building Automation Systems (BAS) or Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning (HVAC) control systems, especially, with the rising demand of Internet of Things (IoT) services. This article describes the fusion of data collected from sensors by exploiting their potential to sense occupancy in a room. For this purpose, a sensor test bed is deployed that includes four sensors measuring temperature, relative humidity, distance from the first obstacle, and light along with a Arduino micro-controller to validate our model. In addition, this article proposes three algorithms for efficient fusion of the sensor data that is inspired by the Grey theory. An improved Grey Relational Model (iGRM) is proposed, which acts as the base classifier for the other two algorithms, namely, Grey Relational Model with Bagging (iGRM-BG) and Grey Relational Model with Boosting (iGRM-BT). Furthermore, all three algorithms use a sliding window concept, where only the samples inside the window participate in model training. Also, we have considered varying number of window size for optimal comparison. The algorithms were tested against the experimental data collected through a test bed as well as on a publicly available large dataset, where both the ensemble models, iGRM-BG and iGRM-BT, are seen to enhance the performance of iGRM. The results reveal exceptionally high performances with accuracies above 95% (iGRM) and up to 100% (iGRM-BT) for the experimental dataset and above 98.24% (iGRM) and up to 99.49% (iGRM-BG) using the publicly available dataset. Among the three proposed models, iGRM-BG was observed to outperform both iGRM and iGRM-BT owing to its advantage of being an ensemble model and its robustness against over-fitting.
Supplemental Material
Available for Download
Supplemental movie, appendix, image and software files for, iGRM: Improved Grey Relational Model and Its Ensembles for Occupancy Sensing in Internet of Things Applications
- Leo Breiman. 1996. Bagging predictors. Machine Learning 24, 2 (1996), 123--140. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Jonathan Brooks, Saket Kumar, Siddharth Goyal, Rahul Subramany, and Prabir Barooah. 2015. Energy-efficient control of under-actuated HVAC zones in commercial buildings. Energy and Buildings 93 (2015), 160--168.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Robiln Burke. 2002. Hybrid recommender systems: Survey and experiments. User Modeling and User-adapted Interaction 12, 4 (2002), 331--370. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Luis M Candanedo and Véronique Feldheim. 2016. Accurate occupancy detection of an office room from light, temperature, humidity and CO measurements using statistical learning models. Energy and Buildings 112 (2016), 28--39.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Lin Chen, Binbin Tian, Weilong Lin, Bing Ji, Junzi Li, and Haihong Pan. 2015. Analysis and prediction of the discharge characteristics of the lithium--ion battery based on the grey system theory. IET Power Electronics 8, 12 (2015), 2361--2369.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Jin Dai, Yannan Sun, Mei Wang, and Huijie Liu. 2017. Application research of personalized recommendation method based on grey theory. In Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE 2nd International Conference on Cloud Computing and Big Data Analysis (ICCCBDA’17). 299--304.Google Scholar
- Resul Das, Ibrahim Turkoglu, and Abdulkadir Sengur. 2009. Effective diagnosis of heart disease through neural networks ensembles. Expert Systems with Applications 36, 4 (2009), 7675--7680. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Robert H. Dodier, Gregor P. Henze, Dale K. Tiller, and Xin Guo. 2006. Building occupancy detection through sensor belief networks. Energy and Buildings 38, 9 (2006), 1033--1043.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Pedro Domingos. 2012. A few useful things to know about machine learning. Communications of the ACM 55, 10 (2012), 78--87. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Varick L. Erickson, Miguel Á. Carreira-Perpiñán, and Alberto E. Cerpa. 2011. OBSERVE: Occupancy-based system for efficient reduction of HVAC energy. In Proceedings of the 2011 10th International Conference on Information Processing in Sensor Networks (IPSN’11). IEEE, 258--269.Google Scholar
- Varick L. Erickson, Yiqing Lin, Ankur Kamthe, Rohini Brahme, Amit Surana, Alberto E. Cerpa, Michael D. Sohn, and Satish Narayanan. 2009. Energy efficient building environment control strategies using real-time occupancy measurements. In Proceedings of the 1st ACM Workshop on Embedded Sensing Systems for Energy-Efficiency in Buildings. ACM, 19--24. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Li-Chang Hsu and Chao-Hung Wang. 2009. Forecasting integrated circuit output using multivariate grey model and grey relational analysis. Expert Systems with Applications 36, 2 (2009), 1403--1409. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Ruoxi Jia, Roy Dong, S. Shankar Sastry, and Costas J. Spanos. 2017. Privacy-enhanced architecture for occupancy-based HVAC control. In Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Cyber-Physical Systems. ACM, 177--186. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Li-Rong Jian and Si-Feng Liu. 2013. Definition of grey degree in set theory and construction of grey rough set models. Control and Decision 28, 5 (2013), 721--725.Google Scholar
- Ming Jin, Nikolaos Bekiaris-Liberis, Kevin Weekly, Costas Spanos, and Alexandre Bayen. 2015. Sensing by proxy: Occupancy detection based on indoor CO concentration. In Proceedings of the UBICOMM’15, Vol. 14.Google Scholar
- Deng Ju-Long. 1982. Control problems of grey systems. Systems 8 Control Letters 1, 5 (1982), 288--294.Google Scholar
- Deng Julong. 1989. Introduction to grey system theory. The Journal of Grey System 1, 1 (1989), 1--24. Google ScholarDigital Library
- M. D. Abdullah Al Hafiz Khan, H. M. Sajjad Hossain, and Nirmalya Roy. 2015. SensePresence: Infrastructure-less occupancy detection for opportunistic sensing applications. In Proceedings of the 2015 16th IEEE International Conference on Mobile Data Management (MDM’15), Vol. 2. IEEE, 56--61. Google ScholarDigital Library
- P. Li and S. F. Liu. 2011. Interval-valued intuitionistic fuzzy numbers decision-making method based on grey incidence analysis and DS theory of evidence. Acta Automatica Sinica 37, 8 (2011), 993--998.Google Scholar
- Kin Sum Liu, Sirajum Munir, Jonathan Francis, Charles Shelton, and Shan Lin. 2017. Long term occupancy estimation in a commercial space: An empirical study: Poster abstract. In Proceedings of the IPSN. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Sifeng Liu and Yi Lin. 2006. Grey Information: Theory and Practical Applications. Springer Science 8 Business Media. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Xiong Luo and Xiaohui Chang. 2015. A novel data fusion scheme using grey model and extreme learning machine in wireless sensor networks. International Journal of Control, Automation, and Systems 13, 3 (2015), 539.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Xiong Luo, Dandan Zhang, Laurence T. Yang, Ji Liu, Xiaohui Chang, and Huansheng Ning. 2016. A kernel machine-based secure data sensing and fusion scheme in wireless sensor networks for the cyber-physical systems. Future Generation Computer Systems 61 (2016), 85--96. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Brian W. Matthews. 1975. Comparison of the predicted and observed secondary structure of T4 phage lysozyme. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta-Protein Structure 405, 2 (1975), 442--451.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Nabeel Nasir, Kartik Palani, Amandeep Chugh, Vivek Chil Prakash, Uddhav Arote, Anand P. Krishnan, and Krithi Ramamritham. 2015. Fusing sensors for occupancy sensing in smart buildings. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Distributed Computing and Internet Technology. Springer, 73--92. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Robi Polikar. 2012. Ensemble learning. In Ensemble Machine Learning. Springer, 1--34.Google Scholar
- Victor Francisco Rodriguez-Galiano, Bardan Ghimire, John Rogan, Mario Chica-Olmo, and Juan Pedro Rigol-Sanchez. 2012. An assessment of the effectiveness of a random forest classifier for land-cover classification. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing 67 (2012), 93--104.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Robert E. Schapire. 1990. The strength of weak learnability. Machine Learning 5, 2 (1990), 197--227. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Vikas Thakur and A. Ramesh. 2015. Selection of waste disposal firms using grey theory based multi-criteria decision making technique. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences 189 (2015), 81--90.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Gang Wang and Jian Ma. 2012. A hybrid ensemble approach for enterprise credit risk assessment based on support vector machine. Expert Systems with Applications 39, 5 (2012), 5325--5331. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Zheng Yang, Nan Li, Burcin Becerik-Gerber, and Michael Orosz. 2014. A systematic approach to occupancy modeling in ambient sensor-rich buildings. Simulation 90, 8 (2014), 960--977. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Qian Yu and Yongjun Shen. 2016. Research of information security risk prediction based on grey theory and ANP. In Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE Advanced Information Management, Communicates, Electronic and Automation Control Conference (IMCEC’16). 107--113.Google Scholar
- Zhijing Zhou, Jinliang Chen, Beibei Shen, Zhigang Xiong, Hua Shen, and Fangyue Guo. 2016. A trajectory prediction method based on aircraft motion model and grey theory. In Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE Advanced Information Management, Communicates, Electronic and Automation Control Conference (IMCEC’16). 1523--1527.Google ScholarCross Ref
Index Terms
- iGRM: Improved Grey Relational Model and Its Ensembles for Occupancy Sensing in Internet of Things Applications
Recommendations
Using boosting to prune bagging ensembles
Boosting is used to determine the order in which classifiers are aggregated in a bagging ensemble. Early stopping in the aggregation of the classifiers in the ordered bagging ensemble allows the identification of subensembles that require less memory ...
Class-switching neural network ensembles
This article investigates the properties of class-switching ensembles composed of neural networks and compares them to class-switching ensembles of decision trees and to standard ensemble learning methods, such as bagging and boosting. In a class-...
On the Interpretation of Ensemble Classifiers in Terms of Bayes Classifiers
Many of the best classifiers are ensemble methods such as bagging, random forests, boosting, and Bayes model averaging. We give conditions under which each of these four classifiers can be regarded as a Bayes classifier. We also give conditions under ...
Comments