Ben Shneiderman
Skip Abstract Section
Abstract
The widespread dissemination of computer and information systems to nontechnically trained individuals requires a new approach to the design and development of database interfaces. This paper provides the motivational background for controlled psychological experimentation in exploring the person/machine interface. Frameworks for the reductionist approach are given, research methods discussed, research issues presented, and a small experiment is offered as an example of what can be accomplished. This experiment is a comparison of natural and artificial language query facilities. Although subjects posed approximately equal numbers of valid queries with either facility, natural language users made significantly more invalid queries which could not be answered from the database that was described.
- 1 GANNON, J.D., AND HORmNG, J.J. The impact of language design on the production of reliable software. IEEE Trans. Software Eng. SE-I, 2 (1975).Google Scholar
- 2 GANNON, J.D. An experimental evaluation of data type conventions. Comm. ACM 20, 8 {Aug. 1977), 584-595. Google ScholarDigital Library
- 3 SHNEIDERMAN, B. Exploratory experiments in programmer behavior. Int. J. Computer and Inform. Sci. 5, 2 (June 1976), 123-143.Google ScholarCross Ref
- 4 SttNEIDERMAN, B., MAYER, R., McKAY, D., AND HELLER, P. Experimental investigations of the utility of detailed flowcharts in programming. Comm. ACM 20, 6 (June 1977), 373-381. Google ScholarDigital Library
- 5 SttNEIDERMAN, B. Measuring computer program quality and comprehension. Int. J. Man-Machine Studies 9 (1977).Google Scholar
- 6 WEISSMAN, L. A methodology for studying the psychological complexity of computer programs. Ph.D. Th., U. of Toronto, Toronto, Ont., Canada, I974. Google ScholarDigital Library
- 7 REISNER, P. Use of psychological experimentation as an aid to development of a query language. IEEE Trans. Software Eng. SE-3, 3 (1977), 218-229.Google ScholarDigital Library
- 8 FURTADO, A.L., AND KERSCHBERG, L. An algebra of quotient relations. Proc. ACM SIGMOD Int. Conf. Manage. of Data (1977), pp. 1-8. Google ScholarDigital Library
- 9 THOMAS, J.C. Quantifiers and question-asking. IBM Res. Rep. RC 5866, IMB T.J. Watson Res. Ctr., Yorktown Heights, N.Y., 1976.Google Scholar
- 10 DATE, C.J. An Introduction to Database Systems. Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass., 2nd ed., 1977. Google ScholarDigital Library
- 11 CODD, E.F. Relational completeness of data base sublanguages, in Data Base Systems, R. Rustin, Ed., Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1971.Google Scholar
- 12 CODD, E.F. Seven steps to rendezvous with the casual user. In Data Base Management, J. W. Klimbie and K. L. Koffeman, Eds., North-Holland Pub. Co., Amsterdam, 1974, pp. 179-199.Google Scholar
- 13 KNUTH, D.E. An empirical study of FORTRAN programs. Software--Practice and Experience 1 (1972), 105-133.Google ScholarCross Ref
- 14 LITECKY, C.R., AND DAVIS, G.D. A study of errors, error-proneness and error diagnosis in Cobol. Comm. ACM, 19, 1 (Jan. 1976), 33-37. Google ScholarDigital Library
- 15 YOUNGS, E. A. Human factors in programming. Int. J. Man-Machine Studies 6, 3 (1974).Google ScholarCross Ref
- 16 EDWARDS, A. L. Experimental Design in Psychological Research. Holt Reinhart and Winston, New York, 1968.Google Scholar
- 17 CRONBAC~, L.J. Essentials of Psychological Testing. Harper and Row, New York, 3rd ed., 1970.Google Scholar
- 18 WEIZENBAUM, J. Eliza--a computer program for the study of natural language communication between man and machine. Comm. ACM 9, 1 (Jan. 1966), 36-45. Google ScholarDigital Library
- 19 WINOGRAD, T. Understanding Natural Language. Academic Press, New York, 1972. Google ScholarDigital Library
- 20 WOODS, W.A., KAPLAN, R.M., AND NASH-WEBBER, B. The lunar sciences natural language information system. Bolt Beranek and Newman, Cambridge, Mass., June 1972.Google Scholar
- 21 MONTGOMERY, C.A. Is natural language an unnatural query language? Proc. A CM Nat. Conf., New York, 1972, pp. 1075-1078. Google ScholarDigital Library
- 22 HILL, I.D. Wouldn't it be nice if we could write computer programs in ordinary English--or would it? Honeywell Comptr. J. 6, 2 (1972), 76-83.Google Scholar
- 23 SHNEIDERMAN, B., Ed. Database Management Systems, inform. Tech. Ser., Vol. 1, AFIPS Press, Montvale, N.J., 1976, pp. 59-61. Google ScholarDigital Library
- 24 WEIZENBAUM, J. Computer Power, Human Reason. W. H. Freeman, San Francisco, 1976.Google Scholar
- 25 LEAVENWORTH, B.M., AND SAMMET, J.E. An overview of nonprocedural languages, SIGPLAN Notices (ACM) 9, (April 1974), 1-12. Google ScholarDigital Library
- 26 CODD, E.F. A relational model of data for large shared data banks. Comm. ACM 13, 6 (June 1970), 377-387. Google ScholarDigital Library
- 27 HELD, G.D., STONEBRAKER, M.R., AND WONG, E. INGRES: A relational database system. Proc. AFIPS 1975 NCC, Vol. 44, AFIPS Press, Montvale, N.J., pp. 409-416.Google Scholar
- 28 CHAMBERLIN, D.D., et al. SEQUEL 2: A unified approach to data definition, manipulation, and control. IBM J. Res. and Develop. 20, 6 (Nov. 1976), 560-574.Google ScholarDigital Library
- 29 SENKO, M.E. The DDL in the context of a multilevel structured description: DIAM II with FORAL. Data Base Description, Proc. IFIP-TC-2 Working Conf., Wepion, Belgium, Jan. 1975, B.C.M. Douque and G. M. Nissen, Eds., North-Holland Pub. Co., Amsterdam, 1975, pp. 239-258.Google Scholar
- 30 SENKO, M.E. DIAM II with FORAL LP: Making pointed queries with light pen. Information Processing 77, North-Holland Pub. Co., Amsterdam, 1977, pp. 635-640. "Google Scholar
- 31 ZLOOF, M.M. Query by example. Proc. AFIPS I975 NCC, Vol. 44, AFIPS Press, Montvale, NJ., pp. 431-437. Google ScholarDigital Library
- 32 System 2000 Reference Manual. MRI Systems Corp., Austin, Tex., 1977, pp. 635-640, 1973.Google Scholar
- 33 Model 204 User Language Reference Manual. Computer Corp. of America, Cambridge, Mass., 1977.Google Scholar
- 34 ROYCE, R.F., CHAMBERLIN, D.D., KING IiI, W. F., AND HAMMER, M.M. Specifying queries as relational expressions: SQUARE. Proc. ACM SIGPLAN-SIGIR Interface Meeting, Gaithersburg, Md., Nov. 1973. Google ScholarDigital Library
- 35 McDONALD, N., AND STONEBRAKER, M. CUPID: The friendly query language. Proc. ACM Pacific Conf., San Francisco, April 1975.Google Scholar
- 36 MILLER, R.B. Response time in man-computer conversational transactions. Proc. AFIPS 1968 SJCC, Vol. 33, AFIPS Press, Montvale, N.J., pp. 267-277.Google Scholar
- 37 MILLER, L. A study in man-machine interaction. Proc. AFIPS 1977 NCC, Vol. 46, AFIPS Press, Montvale, N.J., pp. 409-421.Google Scholar
- 38 HEATH, I.J. Unacceptable file operations in a relational data base. ACM-SIGMOD Proc., 1972.Google Scholar
- 39 SENKO, M,E., ALTMAN, E.B., ASTaAH^N, M.M., AND FEHDER, P.L. Data structures and accessing in database systems, IBM Syst. J. 12, 1 (1973), 30-93.Google ScholarDigital Library
- 40 MCGEE, W.C. On user criteria,for data model evaluation. ACM Trans. Database Syst. 1, 4(Dec. 1976}, 370-387. Google ScholarDigital Library
- 41 CHEN, P. The entity-relationship model--toward a unified view of data. ACM Trans. Database Syst. 1, 1 (March 1976), 9-36. Google ScholarDigital Library
- 42 KERSCHBERG, L., OZKARAHAN, E.A., AND PACHECO, J.E.S. A synthetic English query language for a relational associative processor. Proc. Second Int. Conf. Software Eng., San Francisco, 1976, pp. 505-519. Google ScholarDigital Library
- 43 REISNER, P., BOYCE, R.F., AND CHAMBERLIN, D.D. Human factors evaluation of two data base query languages: SQUARE and SEQUEL. Proc. AFIPS 1975 NCC, Vol. 44, AFIPS Press, Montvale, N.J., pp. 447-452.Google Scholar
- 44 THOMAS, J.C., AND GOULD, J.D. A psychological study of query by example. Proc. 1975 National Computer Conference, AFIPS Press, Montvale, N.J.Google Scholar
- 45 GOULD, J.D., AND ASCHER, R.N. Use of an IQF-like query language by non-programmers. IBM Res. Rep. RC 5279, IBM T.J. Watson Res Ctr., Yorktown Heights, N.Y., Feb. 1975.Google Scholar
- 46 DURDING, B.M., BEEKER, C.A., AND GOULD, J.D. Data organization. Human Factors 19, 1 (1977) 1-14.Google ScholarCross Ref
- 47 THOMAS, J.C. Psychological issues in database management. Proc. Third Int. Conf. Very Large Data Bases, Tokyo, 1977.Google Scholar
- 48 LOCHOVSKY, F., AND TSICHRITZIS, D. User performance considerations in DBMS selection. Proc. ACM-SIGMOD Int. Conf. Manage. of Data, 1977, pp. 128-134. Google ScholarDigital Library
- 49 LOCHOVSKY, F. Database management system user performance Ph.D. Diss. U. of Toronto, Toronto, Ont., Canada, 1978. Google ScholarDigital Library
- 50 BROSEY, M., AND SHNEIDERMAN, B. Two experimental comparisons of relational and hierarchical database models. Int. J. Man-Machine Studies (to appear).Google Scholar
- 51 GREENBLATT, D., AND WAXMAN, J. A study of three database query languages. Databases: Improving Usability and Responsiveness, B. Shneiderman, Ed., Academic Press, New York, 1978.Google Scholar
- 52 SMALL, D.W., ArCD WELDON, L.J. The efficiency of retrieving information from computers using natural and structured query languages. Rep. SAI-78-655-WA, Science Applications, Arlington, Va., Sept. I977.Google Scholar
Index Terms
- Improving the human factors aspect of database interactions
Recommendations
Human factors comparison of a procedural and a nonprocedural query language
Two experiments testing the ability of subjects to write queries in two different query languages were run. The two languages, SQL and TABLET, differ primarily in their procedurality; both languages use the relational data model, and their Halstead ...
Statistical Database Query Languages
Databases that are mainly used for statistical analysis are called statistical databases (SDB). A statistical database management system (SDBMS) may be defined as a database management system that provides capabilities 1) to model, store, and manipulate ...
Providing Quality Responses with Natural Language Interfaces: The Null Value Problem
An underlying relational database model and the database query language SQL are assumed, and methods are presented for responding with appropriate answers to null value responses. This is done by using a knowledge base based on RM/T, an extended ...
Comments