ABSTRACT
The proliferation of IoT devices has created risks of their abuse for unauthorized sensing/monitoring of our daily activities. Especially, the leakage of images taken by wireless spy cameras in sensitive spaces, such as hotel rooms, Airbnb rentals, public restrooms, and shower rooms, has become a serious privacy concern/threat. To mitigate/address this pressing concern, we propose a Spy Camera Finder (SCamF) that uses ubiquitous smartphones to detect and locate wireless spy cameras by analyzing encrypted Wi-Fi network traffic. Not only by characterizing the network traffic patterns of wireless cameras but also by reconstructing encoded video frame sizes from encrypted traffic, SCamF effectively determines the existence of wireless cameras on the Wi-Fi networks, and accurately verifies whether the thus-detected cameras are indeed recording users’ activities. SCamF also accurately locates spy cameras by analyzing reconstructed video frame sizes. We have implemented SCamF on Android smartphones and evaluated its performance on a real testbed across 20 types of wireless cameras. Our experimental results show SCamF to: (1) classify wireless cameras with an accuracy of 0.98; (2) detect spy cameras among the classified wireless cameras with a true positive rate (TPR) of 0.97; (3) incur low false positive rates (FPRs) of 0 and 0.031 for non-camera devices and cameras not recording the users’ activities, respectively; (4) locate spy cameras with centimeter-level distance errors.
- Hervé Abdi. 2007. The Kendall rank correlation coefficient. Encyclopedia of Measurement and Statistics. Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA (2007), 508–510.Google Scholar
- Inc. Activision Publishing. 2021. Call of Duty®: Mobile - Season 5: In Deep Water. https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.activision.callofduty.shooter&hl=en_US&gl=ES.Google Scholar
- Pablo Ameigeiras, Juan J Ramos-Munoz, Jorge Navarro-Ortiz, and Juan M Lopez-Soler. 2012. Analysis and modelling of YouTube traffic. Transactions on Emerging Telecommunications Technologies 23, 4(2012), 360–377.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Yushi Cheng, Xiaoyu Ji, Tianyang Lu, and Wenyuan Xu. 2018. DeWiCam: Detecting Hidden Wireless Cameras via Smartphones. In Proceedings of the 2018 on Asia Conference on Computer and Communications Security (Incheon, Republic of Korea) (ASIACCS ’18). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1145/3196494.3196509Google ScholarDigital Library
- Yushi Cheng, Xiaoyu Ji, Tianyang Lu, and Wenyuan Xu. 2020. On Detecting Hidden Wireless Cameras: A Traffic Pattern-based Approach. IEEE Transactions on Mobile Computing 19, 4 (2020), 907–921. https://doi.org/10.1109/TMC.2019.2900919Google ScholarDigital Library
- CNN. 2019. Family finds hidden camera livestreaming from their Airbnb in Ireland. https://edition.cnn.com/2019/04/05/europe/ireland-airbnb-hidden-camera-scli-intl/index.html.Google Scholar
- CNN. 2019. Hundreds of motel guests were secretly filmed and live-streamed online. https://edition.cnn.com/2019/03/20/asia/south-korea-hotel-spy-cam-intl/index.html.Google Scholar
- Thomas Publishing Company. 2022. Spy Cameras Suppliers. https://www.thomasnet.com/products/spy-cameras-95965083-1.html.Google Scholar
- Mauro Conti, Qian Qian Li, Alberto Maragno, and Riccardo Spolaor. 2018. The Dark Side(-Channel) of Mobile Devices: A Survey on Network Traffic Analysis. IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials 20, 4 (2018), 2658–2713. https://doi.org/10.1109/COMST.2018.2843533Google ScholarDigital Library
- ALP Digitech. 2019. Spy hidden camera Detector. https://apps.apple.com/us/app/spy-hidden-camera-detector/id925967783#?platform=iphone.Google Scholar
- Lucas Dixon, Thomas Ristenpart, and Thomas Shrimpton. 2016. Network Traffic Obfuscation and Automated Internet Censorship. IEEE Security & Privacy 14, 6 (2016), 43–53. https://doi.org/10.1109/MSP.2016.121Google ScholarDigital Library
- Kevin P. Dyer, Scott E. Coull, Thomas Ristenpart, and Thomas Shrimpton. 2012. Peek-a-Boo, I Still See You: Why Efficient Traffic Analysis Countermeasures Fail. In 2012 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, New York, NY, USA, 332–346. https://doi.org/10.1109/SP.2012.28Google ScholarDigital Library
- europages. 2022. Manufacturer producer - spy cameras. https://www.europages.co.uk/companies/Manufacturer%20producer/spy%20cameras.html.Google Scholar
- Raspberry Pi Foundation. 2022. Raspberry PI. https://www.raspberrypi.org/.Google Scholar
- futureapps. 2022. Hidden Camera Detector. https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=hiddencamdetector.futureapps.com.hiddencamdetector&hl=en_US&gl=US.Google Scholar
- Spy Gadgets. 2021. Spy Cameras. https://www.spygadgets.com/collections/spy-cameras.Google Scholar
- Ltd. Hardkernel co.2022. ODROID. https://www.hardkernel.com/.Google Scholar
- Yan He, Qiuye He, Song Fang, and Yao Liu. 2021. MotionCompass: Pinpointing Wireless Camera via Motion-Activated Traffic. In Proceedings of the 19th Annual International Conference on Mobile Systems, Applications, and Services (Virtual Event, Wisconsin) (MobiSys ’21). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 215–227. https://doi.org/10.1145/3458864.3467683Google ScholarDigital Library
- Hajo Holzmann and Sebastian Vollmer. 2008. A likelihood ratio test for bimodality in two-component mixtures with application to regional income distribution in the EU. AStA Advances in Statistical Analysis 92, 1 (2008), 57–69.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Stephan Kleber, Lisa Maile, and Frank Kargl. 2019. Survey of Protocol Reverse Engineering Algorithms: Decomposition of Tools for Static Traffic Analysis. IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials 21, 1 (2019), 526–561. https://doi.org/10.1109/COMST.2018.2867544Google ScholarCross Ref
- Tian Liu, Ziyu Liu, Jun Huang, Rui Tan, and Zhen Tan. 2018. Detecting Wireless Spy Cameras Via Stimulating and Probing. In Proceedings of the 16th Annual International Conference on Mobile Systems, Applications, and Services(Munich, Germany) (MobiSys ’18). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 243–255. https://doi.org/10.1145/3210240.3210332Google ScholarDigital Library
- Fannia Pacheco, Ernesto Exposito, Mathieu Gineste, Cedric Baudoin, and Jose Aguilar. 2019. Towards the Deployment of Machine Learning Solutions in Network Traffic Classification: A Systematic Survey. IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials 21, 2 (2019), 1988–2014. https://doi.org/10.1109/COMST.2018.2883147Google ScholarCross Ref
- Zhaoqing Pan, Jianjun Lei, Yun Zhang, Xingming Sun, and Sam Kwong. 2016. Fast Motion Estimation Based on Content Property for Low-Complexity H.265/HEVC Encoder. IEEE Transactions on Broadcasting 62, 3 (2016), 675–684. https://doi.org/10.1109/TBC.2016.2580920Google ScholarCross Ref
- PANGSKY. 2021. Battle Royale Fortress. https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.pang.ftrs.google.Google Scholar
- Grzegorz Pastuszak and Andrzej Abramowski. 2016. Algorithm and Architecture Design of the H.265/HEVC Intra Encoder. IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems for Video Technology 26, 1(2016), 210–222. https://doi.org/10.1109/TCSVT.2015.2428571Google ScholarDigital Library
- Ashish Patro, Srinivas Govindan, and Suman Banerjee. 2013. Observing Home Wireless Experience through WiFi APs. In Proceedings of the 19th Annual International Conference on Mobile Computing & Networking (Miami, Florida, USA) (MobiCom ’13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 339–350. https://doi.org/10.1145/2500423.2500448Google ScholarDigital Library
- Changhua Pei, Zhi Wang, Youjian Zhao, Zihan Wang, Yuan Meng, Dan Pei, Yuanquan Peng, Wenliang Tang, and Xiaodong Qu. 2017. Why It Takes So Long to Connect to a WiFi Access Point. In IEEE INFOCOM 2017 - IEEE Conference on Computer Communications. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, New York, NY, USA, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1109/INFOCOM.2017.8057164Google ScholarCross Ref
- Antônio J. Pinheiro, Paulo Freitas de Araujo-Filho, Jeandro de M. Bezerra, and Divanilson R. Campelo. 2021. Adaptive Packet Padding Approach for Smart Home Networks: A Tradeoff Between Privacy and Performance. IEEE Internet of Things Journal 8, 5 (2021), 3930–3938. https://doi.org/10.1109/JIOT.2020.3025988Google ScholarCross Ref
- Shiva Raj Pokhrel and Carey Williamson. 2018. Modeling Compound TCP Over WiFi for IoT. IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking 26, 2 (2018), 864–878. https://doi.org/10.1109/TNET.2018.2806352Google ScholarDigital Library
- The Washington Post. 2021. Does your Airbnb or hotel have a hidden camera? Experts share tips for protecting yourself.https://www.washingtonpost.com/travel/tips/airbnb-hidden-camera-tiktok/.Google Scholar
- Atul Puri, Xuemin Chen, and Ajay Luthra. 2004. Video coding using the H.264/MPEG-4 AVC compression standard. Signal Processing: Image Communication 19, 9 (2004), 793–849. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.image.2004.06.003 Technologies enabling Movies on Internet, HD DVD, and DCinema.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Sriram Sami, Sean Rui Xiang Tan, Bangjie Sun, and Jun Han. 2021. LAPD: Hidden Spy Camera Detection Using Smartphone Time-of-Flight Sensors. In Proceedings of the 19th ACM Conference on Embedded Networked Sensor Systems (Coimbra, Portugal) (SenSys ’21). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 288–301. https://doi.org/10.1145/3485730.3485941Google ScholarDigital Library
- Heiko Schwarz, Detlev Marpe, and Thomas Wiegand. 2007. Overview of the Scalable Video Coding Extension of the H.264/AVC Standard. IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems for Video Technology 17, 9(2007), 1103–1120. https://doi.org/10.1109/TCSVT.2007.905532Google ScholarDigital Library
- SpyAssociates.com Security. 2018. SPYFINDER PRO Hidden Spy Camera Detector. https://www.amazon.com/SPYFINDER-PRO-Hidden-Camera-Finder/dp/B07HVJ8VZR.Google Scholar
- Charalambos Sergiou, Pavlos Antoniou, and Vasos Vassiliou. 2014. A Comprehensive Survey of Congestion Control Protocols in Wireless Sensor Networks. IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials 16, 4 (2014), 1839–1859. https://doi.org/10.1109/COMST.2014.2320071Google ScholarCross Ref
- sherry. 2019. RF Signal Detection. https://amzn.to/2TQs1A1.Google Scholar
- Akash Deep Singh, Luis Garcia, Joseph Noor, and Mani Srivastava. 2021. I Always Feel Like Somebody’s Sensing Me! A Framework to Detect, Identify, and Localize Clandestine Wireless Sensors. In 30th USENIX Security Symposium (USENIX Security 21). USENIX Association, Berkeley, CA, USA, 1829–1846. https://www.usenix.org/conference/usenixsecurity21/presentation/singhGoogle Scholar
- Katty so. 2019. RF Spy Camera Detector. https://www.amazon.com/Camera-Detector-Hidden-Detecting-Tracker/dp/B07TKHYL16.Google Scholar
- Birru Dereje Teshome. 2019. Spy Camera Epidemic in Korea: A Situational Analysis. Asian Journal of Sociological Research 2, 1 (2019), 1–13.Google Scholar
- Geert Van der Auwera, Prasanth T. David, and Martin Reisslein. 2008. Traffic Characteristics of H.264/AVC Variable Bit Rate Video. IEEE Communications Magazine 46, 11 (2008), 164–174. https://doi.org/10.1109/MCOM.2008.4689260Google ScholarDigital Library
- Mathy Vanhoef, Célestin Matte, Mathieu Cunche, Leonardo S. Cardoso, and Frank Piessens. 2016. Why MAC Address Randomization is Not Enough: An Analysis of Wi-Fi Network Discovery Mechanisms. In Proceedings of the 11th on ACM Asia Conference on Computer and Communications Security (Xi’an, China) (ASIA CCS ’16). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 413–424. https://doi.org/10.1145/2897845.2897883Google ScholarDigital Library
- Y.-K. Wang, R. Even, T. Kristensen, and R. Jesup. 2011. RTP Payload Format for H.264 Video. In RFC 6184, Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). RFC Editor, Wilmington, DE, USA, 1–101.Google Scholar
- WPTV. 2022. Martin County mother says hidden cameras caused ’path of destruction’ for family. https://www.wptv.com/news/treasure-coast/region-martin-county/martin-county-mother-says-hidden-cameras-caused-path-of-destruction-for-family.Google Scholar
- Jin Xie, Wei Hu, and Zhenghao Zhang. 2011. Revisiting Partial Packet Recovery in 802.11 Wireless LANs. In Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Mobile Systems, Applications, and Services(Bethesda, Maryland, USA) (MobiSys ’11). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 281–292. https://doi.org/10.1145/1999995.2000022Google ScholarDigital Library
- Keyang Yu, Qi Li, Dong Chen, Mohammad Rahman, and Shiqiang Wang. 2021. PrivacyGuard: Enhancing Smart Home User Privacy. In Proceedings of the 20th International Conference on Information Processing in Sensor Networks (Co-Located with CPS-IoT Week 2021) (Nashville, TN, USA) (IPSN ’21). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 62–76. https://doi.org/10.1145/3412382.3458257Google ScholarDigital Library
Index Terms
- Are There Wireless Hidden Cameras Spying on Me?
Recommendations
LAPD: Hidden Spy Camera Detection using Smartphone Time-of-Flight Sensors
SenSys '21: Proceedings of the 19th ACM Conference on Embedded Networked Sensor SystemsTiny hidden spy cameras concealed in sensitive locations including hotels and bathrooms are becoming a significant threat worldwide. These hidden cameras are easily purchasable and are extremely difficult to find with the naked eye due to their small ...
On Utilizing Smartphone Time-of-Flight Sensors to Detect Hidden Spy Cameras
SenSys '21: Proceedings of the 19th ACM Conference on Embedded Networked Sensor SystemsTiny spy cameras hidden in everyday objects are continuing to pose severe privacy threats to the general public as these cameras are often placed in sensitive locations such as hotels and restroom stalls. Commercially available "hidden camera detectors" ...
Spying on the Spy: Security Analysis of Hidden Cameras
Network and System SecurityAbstractHidden cameras, also called spy cameras, are surveillance tools commonly used to spy on people without their knowledge. Whilst previous studies largely focused on investigating the detection of such a camera and the privacy implications, the ...
Comments