Skip to main content

Earthquakes, Electromagnetic Signals of

  • Reference work entry
Encyclopedia of Complexity and Systems Science

Definition of the Subject

Throughout most of human history, electromagnetic phenomena associated with earthquakes have been repeatedly told. A typical one isearthquake light . Until rather recently, however, most records were in the realm offolklore [31,71]. Since earthquakes are understoodas a catastrophic event to occur when slowly increasing tectonic stress in the earth's crust reaches a critical level, it may well be expectedthat the same stress may give rise to some electric, magnetic, or electromagnetic phenomena (EM phenomena hereafter) and some persistent research on themwas initiated more or less simultaneously in varied parts of the world in the 1980s in two main streams. One was monitoring of possibleemissions from focal regions in a wide range of frequency from DC to VHF,whereas the other was to monitor the anomalous transmission of man-made EM waves of varied frequencies over focal regions. Theoretical and experimental studies...

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 3,499.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 549.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Abbreviations

Earthquake prediction :

Place of epicenter, time of occurrence, and magnitude are the three main items of earthquake prediction. Occurrence time is the most difficult to predict. Depending on the concerned time scales, prediction is usually classified as long term (∼ tens of years), intermediate term (∼ a few years), and short term (months to days) predictions. Electromagnetic signals of earthquakes are mainly concerned with the short term prediction.

Piezo‐electric effect :

Piezo‐electricity is the electric polarization produced in certain crystals and ceramics by the application of mechanical stress. Among rock‐forming minerals, quartz is most strongly piezo‐electric, but its effect is much reduced because quartz crystals are usually randomly oriented. Moreover, stress‐induced piezo‐electric polarization in rocks is kept canceled by compensating charges. At rapid stress drop, bulk polarization appears as the compensating charge cannot disappear instantly and decays with a time constant \( { \tau =\varepsilon /\sigma } \), where ε is dielectric constant and σ electric conductivity.

Electro‐kinetic effect :

Electro‐kinetic effect, also called streaming potential, is caused by the presence of the solid‐liquid interface. The double layer consists of ions (anions in most cases of rock-water system) that are firmly anchored to the solid phase and ions of the opposite sign (cations) in the liquid phase attracted to them near the boundary. The liquid phase is in surplus of cations so that when the liquid flows due to a pressure gradient, an electric potential gradient is formed. It is expressed as grad \( { V = - (\varepsilon \zeta / \eta \sigma) \operatorname{grad} P } \), where ε, σ and η are the dielectric constant, electric conductivity, and viscosity of the fluid, whereas ζ is a constant called zeta potential. Thus, the streaming potential is small for high conductive and viscous liquid.

Telluric current :

Electric current flowing in the surface layer of the earth's crust is called telluric current. Mainly it consists of the current induced by extra‐terrestrial geomagnetic field variations (called magneto‐telluric or MT current) and the current as a part of the global circuit between ionosphere and ground. MT current carries information on the electrical structure of the earth's interior: higher (lower) frequency for shallower (deeper) structure. Telluric current can also be of man-made origin leaking from such electric sources as factories and trains. Telluric current is measured by dipoles of electrodes inserted into the ground at separate points. It has been postulated that transient anomalous telluric currents are observed before earthquakes.

Frequency bands of electromagnetic waves :

Electromagnetic waves are classified by frequency bands as follows: ULF (< a few Hz), ELF (a few Hz ∼ 3 kHz), VLF (3–30 kHz), LF (30–300 kHz), MF (300–3000 kHz), HF(3–30 MHz), VHF (30–300 MHz), UHF (300–3000 MHz), SHF (3–30 GHz). Not only ULF to VHF bands, but also infrared (∼ 1013 Hz) and visible (\( { \sim\,10^{14} } \) Hz) bands are considered to be involved in earthquake‐related electromagnetic waves.

Skin effect :

The intensity of electromagnetic wave decreases exponentially with distance in a conductive medium. In a simple case, the distance where the intensity becomes \( { 1/e } \), called the skin depth  δ, is expressed as \( { \delta = \sqrt{2/\mu\sigma\omega} } \), where μ and σ are magnetic permeability, and electric conductivity of the medium and ω is the angular frequency of the wave.

Ionosphere :

The upper atmosphere, where electrons are stripped off from oxygen and nitrogen atoms by solar radiation, is called the ionosphere. It consists of a D-layer (60–90 km), E-layer (90–130 km), F 1-layer (130–210 km), and F 2-layer (210–1000 km). Electron density is highest in the F 2-layer. The electron density of the ionospheric lower layer can be measured by ground‐based ionosonde, whereas total electron content (TEC) of the whole ionosphere is estimated by global position system (GPS). Electric currents in the ionosphere produce transient variations of geomagnetic field. The suggestion has been made that the ionosphere is affected before earthquakes .

Bibliography

  1. Abe S, Sarlis NV, Skordas ES, Tanaka HK, Varotsos PA (2005) Origin of theusefulness of the natural‐time representation of complex time series. Phys Rev Lett 94:170601

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  2. Antselevich MG (1971) The influence of Tashkent earthquake on the Earth'smagnetic field and the ionosphere. In: Tashkent earthquake 26 April 1966. FAN, Tashkent, pp 187–188 (in Russian)

    Google Scholar 

  3. Asada T, Baba H, Kawazoe K, Sugiura M (2001) An attempt to delineate very lowfrequency electromagnetic signals associated with earthquakes. Earth Planets Space 53:55–62

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  4. Bak P, Tang C (1989) Earthquakes as a self‐organized criticalphenomenon. J Geophys Res 94(15):15637–15639

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  5. Bernard P (1992) Plausibility of long distance electrotelluric precursors toearthquakes. J Geophys Res 97:17531–17536

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  6. Clilverd MA, Rodger CJ, Thomson NR (1999) Investigating seismo‐ionosphericeffects on a long subionospheric path. J Geophys Res 104(A12):28171–28179

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  7. Dey S, Singh RP (2003) Surface latent heat flux as an earthquake precursor. NatHaz Earth Syst Sci 3:749–755

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  8. Ducic V, Artru J, Lognonne P (2003) Ionospheric remote sensing of the DenaliEarthquake Rayleigh surface waves. Geophys Res Lett 30(18):1951. doi:10.1029/2003GL017812

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  9. Eftaxias K, Kapiris P, Polygiannakis J, Peratzakis A, Kopanas J, Antonopoulos G,Rigas D (2002) Experience of short term earthquake precursors with VLF-VHF electromagnetic emissions. Nat Hazards Earth Syst Sci20:1–12

    Google Scholar 

  10. Enomoto Y, Hashimoto H (1990) Emission of charged particles from indentationfracture of rocks. Nature 346:641–643

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  11. Enomoto Y, Zheng Z (1998) Possible evidences of earthquake lightningaccompanying the 1995 Kobe earthquake inferred from the Nojima fault gouge. Geophys Res Lett 25:2721–2724

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  12. Enomoto Y, Hashimoto H, Shirai N, Murakami Y, Mogi T, Takada M, Kasahara M(2006) Anomalous geoelectric signals possibly related to the 2000 Mt. Usu eruption and 2003 Tokachi‐oki earthquake. Phys Chem Earth31:319–324

    Google Scholar 

  13. Fedorov E, Pilipenko V, Uyeda S (2001) Electric and magnetic fields generatedby electrokinetic processes in a conductive crust. Phys Chem Earth C 26:793–799

    Google Scholar 

  14. Fischbach DB, Nowick AS (1958) Some transient electrical effects of plasticdeformation in NaCl crystals. J Phys Chem Solids 5:302–315

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  15. Fitterman DV (1978) Electrokinetic and magnetic anomalies associated withdilatant regions in a layered earth. J Geophys Res 83:5923–5928

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  16. Fraser‐Smith AC, Bernardi A, McGill PR, Ladd ME, Helliwell RA, VillardOG Jr (1990) Low‐frequency magnetic field measurements near the epicenter of the Ms 7.1 Loma Prieta earthquake. Geophys Res Lett17:1465–1468

    Google Scholar 

  17. Freund F (2000) Time‐resolved study of charge generation and propagationin igneous rocks. J Geophys Res 105:11001–11019

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  18. Freund F, Takeuchi A, Lau BES (2006) Electric currents streaming out ofstressed igneous rocks – a step towards understanding pre‐earthquake low frequency EM emissions. Phys Chem Earth31:389–396

    Google Scholar 

  19. Freund FT, Takeuchi A, Lau BWS, Al‐Manaseer A, Fu CC, Bryant NA,Ouzounov D (2007) Stimulated infrared emission from rocks: Assessing a stress indicator. eEarth 2:7–16

    Google Scholar 

  20. Fujiwara H, Kamogawa M, Ikeda M, Liu JY, Sakata H, Chen YI, Ofuruton H,Muramatsu S, Chuo YJ, Ohtsuki YH (2004) Atmospheric anomalies observed during earthquake occurrences. Geophys Res Lett31:L17110. doi:10.1029/2004GL019865

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  21. Galli I (1910) Raccolta e classificazione de fenomeni luminosi osservati neiterremoti. Bull Soc Sis Ital 14:221–447 (in Italian)

    Google Scholar 

  22. Geller R (ed) (1996) Debate on “VAN”. Geophys Res Lett23:1291–1452

    Google Scholar 

  23. Gokhberg MB, Morgounov VA, Yoshino T, Tomizawa I (1982) Experimentalmeasurement of electromagnetic emissions possibly related to earthquakes in Japan. J Geophys Res 87(B9):7824–7828

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  24. Gokhberg MB, Gufeld IL, Rozhnoy AA, Marenko VF, Yampolsky VS, Ponomarev EA(1989) Study of seismic influence on the ionosphere by super long-wave probing of the Earth ionosphere wave-guide. Phys Earth Planet Inter57:64–67

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  25. Gokhberg MB, Morgounov VA, Pokhotelov OA (1995) Earthquake prediction,seismo‐electromagnetic phenomena. Gordon and Breach, Reading, p 289

    Google Scholar 

  26. Grimalsky VV, Hayakawa M, Ivchenko VN, Rapoport YG, Zadorozhnii VI (2003)Penetration of an electrostatic field from the lithosphere intothe ionosphere and its effect on the D‑region before earthquakes. J AtmosSolar-Terr Phys 65:391–407

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  27. Gufeld IL, Rozhnoi AA, Tyumensev SN, Sherstuk SV, Yampolsky VS (1992)Radiowave disturbances in period to Rudber and Rachinsk earthquakes. Phys Solid Earth 28:267–270

    Google Scholar 

  28. Hattori K (2004) ULF geomagnetic changes associated with largeearthquakes. Terr Atmos Ocean Sci 15:329–360

    Google Scholar 

  29. Hayakawa M, Kawate R, Molchanov OA, Yumoto K (1996) Results of ultra-lowfrequency magnetic field measurements during Guam earthquake of 8 August 1993. Geophys Res Lett 23:241–244

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  30. Igarashi G, Saeki S, Takahata N, Sumikawa K, Tasaka S, Sasaki Y, Takahashi M,Sano Y (1995) Ground‐water radon anomaly before the Kobe earthquake in Japan. Science 269:60–61

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  31. Ikeya M (2004) Earthquakes and Animals. World Scientific, Singapore,294 pp

    Google Scholar 

  32. Ikeya M, Takaki S (1996) Electromagnetic fault for earthquake lightning. JpnJour Appl Phys Part 2 35(3A):355–357

    Google Scholar 

  33. Kamagowa M (2006) Preseismic lithosphere‐atmosphere‐ionospherecoupling. Eos 87:417, 424

    Google Scholar 

  34. Kamogawa M (2007) Reply to comment on preseismiclithosphere‐atmosphere‐ionosphere coupling. Eos88:248

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  35. Kamogawa M, Ohtsuki YH (1999) Plasmon model for origin of earthquake relatedelectromagnetic wave noises. Proc Japan Acad 75(Ser. B):186–189

    Google Scholar 

  36. Kamogawa M, Liu JY, Fujiwara H, Chuo YJ, Tsai YB, Hattori K, Nagao T, Uyeda S,Ohtsuki YH (2004) Atmospheric field variations before the March 31 2002 \( { M6.8 } \) Earthquake in Taiwan. Terr Atmos Ocean Sci 15:445–461

    Google Scholar 

  37. Kamogawa M, Ofuruton H, Ohtsuki YH (2005) Earthquake light: 1995 Kobeearthquake in Japan. Atmos Res 76:438–444

    Google Scholar 

  38. Keilis‐Borok VI, Soloviev AA (eds) (2003) Nonlinear dynamics of thelithosphere and earthquake prediction. Springer, Heidelberg, 335 pp

    Google Scholar 

  39. Kopytenko YA, Matishvili TG, Voronov PM, Kopytenko EA, Molchanov OA (1993)Detection of ultra-low‐frequency emissions connected with the Spitak earthquake and its aftershock activity, based on geomagnetic pulsation data atDusheti and Vardzia observatories. Phys Earth Planet Inter 77:85–95

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  40. Kushida Y, Kushida R (2002) Possibility of earthquake forecast by radioobservations in the VHF band. J Atmos Electr 22:239–255

    Google Scholar 

  41. Lighthill J Sir (ed) (1996) A critical review of VAN. World Scientific,Singapore, 376 pp

    Google Scholar 

  42. Liu J, Chen Y, Ho Y (2004) A study of lightning activities and\( { M \geq 5.0 } \) Earthquakes in Taiwanduring 1993–2002. Eos Trans AGU 85(47):T51B-0456 (Fall Meet. Suppl., Abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  43. Liu JY, Chen YI, Pulinets SA, Tsai YB, Chuo YJ (2000) Seismo‐ionosphericsignatures prior to \( { M\ge 6.0 } \) Taiwanearthquakes. Geophys Res Lett 27:3113–3116

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  44. Liu JY, Chen YI, Chuo YJ, Tsai HF (2001) Variations of ionospheric totalelectron content during the Chi-Chi earthquake. Geophys Res Lett 28:1383–1386

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  45. Liu JY, Chen YI, Chuo YJ (2006) A statisticalinvestigation of pre‐earthquake ionospheric anomaly. J Geophys Res111:A05304. doi:10.1029/2005JA011333

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  46. Lizunov G, Hayakawa M (2004) Atmospheric gravity waves and their role in thelithosphere‐troposphere‐ionosphere interaction 1109. IEEJ Trans Fundam Mater 124-A:1109–1120

    Google Scholar 

  47. Maeda K, Tomisaka T (1996) Decametric radiation at the time of the Hyogo-kenNanbu earthquake near Kobe in 1995. Geophys Res Lett 23:2433–2436

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  48. Maekawa S, Horie T, Yamauchi T, Sawaya T, Ishikawa M, Hayakawa M, Sasaki H(2006) A statistical study on the effect of earthquakes on the ionosphere, based on the subionospheric LF propagation data in Japan. Ann Geophys24:2219–2225

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  49. Marenko VF (1989) Investigation of the relationship between seismic processesand disturbances to the lower ionosphere by means of VLF radio transmissions. Ph.D. Dissertation, USSR Academy of Sciences, Siberian Department, Irkutsk,160 pp

    Google Scholar 

  50. Michael AJ (1997) Testing prediction methods: Earthquake clustering versus thePoisson model. Geophys Res Lett 24:1891–1894

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  51. Mizutani H, Ishido T, Yokokura T, Ohnishi S (1976) Electrokinetic phenomenaassociated with earthquakes. Geophys Res Lett 3:365–368

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  52. Molchanov OA, Hayakawa M (1998) Subionospheric VLF signal perturbationspossibly related to earthquakes. J Geophys Res 100:1691–1712

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  53. Mulargia F, Gasperini P (1992) Evaluating the statistical validity beyondchance of VAN earthquake precursors. Geophys J Int111:32–44

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  54. Musha K (1932) Investigations into the luminous phenomena accompanyingearthquakes. Bull Earthquake Res Inst Tokyo Univ 10:666–673

    Google Scholar 

  55. Nagao T, Enomoto Y, Fujinawa Y, Hata M, Hayakawa M, Huang Q, Izutsu J, KushidaY, Maeda K, Oike K, Uyeda S, Yoshino T (2002) Electromagnetic anomalies associated with 1995 Kobe earthquake. J Geodynamics33:349–359

    Google Scholar 

  56. Norwick AS (1996) The golden age of crystal defects. Ann Rev Mater Sci26:1–19

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  57. Ouzounov DP, Williams RG, Wohlman R (2000) A joint analysis of earthquakeand lightning activity in the Southern California (1995–1999). Eos Trans AGU 81(19):S41B-08 (SpringMeet. Suppl. Abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  58. Parrot M (ed) (2007) First results of the DEMETERmicro‐satellite. Planet Space Sci 54(5):411–558

    Google Scholar 

  59. Pilipenko V, Shamimov S, Uyeda S, Tanaka H (2001) Possible mechanism of theover‐horizon reception of FM radio waves during earthquake preparation period. Proc Japan Acad 77(Ser. B):125–130

    Google Scholar 

  60. Pulinets S (2007) Natural radioactivity, earthquakes, and the ionosphere. Eos88:217–218

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  61. Pulinets S, Boyarchuk K (2005) Ionospheric precursors ofearthquakes. Springer, p 315

    Google Scholar 

  62. Pulinets SA, Boyarchuk KA, Hegai VV, Kim VP, Lomonosov AM (2000)Quasielectrostatic model of atmosphere‐thermosphere‐ionosphere coupling. Adv Space Res 26:1209–1218

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  63. Pulinets SA, Legen'ka AD, Gaivoronskaya TV, Depuev VK (2003) Mainphenomenological features of ionospheric precursors of strong earthquakes. J Atmos Solar Terr Phys 65:1337–1347

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  64. Rodger CJ, Clilverd MA (2007) Comment on preseismiclithosphere‐atmosphere‐ionosphere coupling. Eos 88:248

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  65. Rundle JB, Turcotte DL, Sammis C, Klein W,Shcherbakov R (2003) Statistical physics approach to understanding the multiscale dynamics of earthquake fault systems. Rev Geophys41(4). doi:10.1029/2003RG000135

  66. Schreider SY (1990) Formal definition of premonitory seismic quiescence. PhysEarth Planet Interi 61:113–127

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  67. Sobolev GA, Zakrzhevskaya NA, Kharin EP (2001) On a relation betweenseismicity and magnetic storms. Phys Earth 11:66–72

    Google Scholar 

  68. Sornette D (2000) Critical phenomena in natural sciences. Springer, Berlin, 434 pp

    MATH  Google Scholar 

  69. Terada T (1931) On luminous phenomena accompanying earthquakes. Bull EarthqRes Inst Tokyo Univ 9:225–255

    Google Scholar 

  70. Tramutoli V, Di Bello G, Pergola N, Piscitelli S (2001) Robust satellite,techniques for remote sensing of seismically active areas. Annali di Geofisica 44:295–312

    Google Scholar 

  71. Tributsch H (1982) When the snakes awake. MIT Press, Cambridge,248 pp

    Google Scholar 

  72. Tronin AA (1996) Satellite thermal survey – a new tool for thestudy of seismoactive regions. Int J Remote Sens 41:1439–1455

    Google Scholar 

  73. Turcotte DL (1997) Fractals and chaos in geology and geophysis. CambridgeUniversity Press, Cambridge, 398 pp

    Google Scholar 

  74. Uyeda S (1996) Introduction to the VAN method of earthquake prediction,a critical review of VAN. World Scientific, London, Singapore, pp 3–28

    Google Scholar 

  75. Uyeda S, Al‐Damegh K, Dologlou E, Nagao T (1999) Some relationshipbetween VAN seismic electric signals (SES) and earthquake parameters. Tectonophysics 304:41–55

    Google Scholar 

  76. Uyeda S, Nagao T, Orihara Y, Yamaguchi Y, Takahashi T (2000) Geoelectricpotential changes: Possible precursors to earthquakes in Japan. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA (PNAS) 97:4561–4566

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  77. Uyeda S, Hayakawa M, Nagao T, Molchanov O, Hattori K, Orihara Y, Gotoh K,Akinaga Y, Tanaka H (2002) Electric and magnetic phenomena observed before the volcano‐seismic activity 2000 in the Izu Island Region, Japan. ProcNat Acad Sci USA (PNAS) 99(11):7352–7355

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  78. Varotsos P, Alexopoulos K (1984) Physical properties of the variations of theelectric field of the earth preceding earthquakes. Tectonophysics 110:73–125

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  79. Varotsos P, Alexopoulos K (1986) Stimulated current emission in the earth andrelated geophysical aspects. In: Amelinckx S, Gevers R, Nihoul J (eds) Thermodynamics of point defects and their relation with bulk properties. NorthHolland, Amsterdam

    Google Scholar 

  80. Varotsos P, Kulhanek O (eds) (1993) Measurements and theoretical models of theEarth's electric field variations related to earthquakes. Tectonophysics 224:1–288

    Google Scholar 

  81. Varotsos P, Sarlis N, Lazaridou M, Kapiris P (1998) Transmission of stressinduced electric signals in dielectric media. J Appl Phys 83:60–70

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  82. Varotsos PA (2005) The physics of seismic electric signals. TerraPub, Tokyo,338 pp

    Google Scholar 

  83. Varotsos PA, Sarlis N, Skordas E (2002) Long-range correlations in theelectric signals that precede rupture. Phys Rev E 66:011902

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  84. Varotsos PA, Sarlis NV, Skordas ES, Lazaridou MS (2004) Entropy in the naturaltime domain. Phys Rev E 70:011106

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  85. Varotsos PA, Sarlis NV, Skordas ES, Lazaridou MS (2005) Natural entropyfluctuations discriminate similar‐looking electric signals emitted from systems of different dynamics. Phys Rev E71:011110

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  86. Varotsos PA, Sarlis NV, Skordas ES, Tanaka HK,Lazaridou MS (2006) Entropy of seismic electric signals: Analysis in natural time under time reversal. Phys Rev E 73:031114

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  87. Wakita H, Nakamura Y, Notsu K, Noguchi M, Asada T (1980) Radon anomaly:A possible precursor of the 1978 Izu‐Oshima‐Kinkai Earthquake. Science 207:882–883

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  88. Warwick JW, Stoker C, Meyer TR (1982) Radio emission associated with rockfracture: Possible application to the great Chilean earthquake of May 22 1960. J Geophys Res 87:2851–2859

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  89. Weron A, Burnecki K, Mercik S, Weron K (2005) Complete description of allself‐similar models driven by Lévy stable noise. Phys Rev E 71:016113

    MathSciNet  ADS  Google Scholar 

  90. Yamada I, Masuda K, Mizutani H (1989) Electromagnetic and acoustic emissionassociated with rock fracture. Phys Earth Planet Int 57:157–168

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  91. Yasui Y (1968) A study on the luminous phenomena accompanied withearthquakes (part 1). Mem Kakioka Mag Obs 13:25–61

    Google Scholar 

  92. Yasuoka Y, Igarashi G, Ishikawa T, Tokonami S, Shinogi M (2006) Evidence ofprecursor phenomena in the Kobe earthquake obtained from atmospheric radon concentration. Appl Geochem 21:1064–1072

    Google Scholar 

  93. Yoshida S (2001) Convection current generated prior to rupture in saturatedrocks. J Geophys Res 106(B2):2103–2120

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  94. Yoshida S, Uyeshima M, Nakatani M (1997) Electric potential changes associatedwith slip failure of granite: Preseismic and coseismic signals. J Geophys Res 102:14883–14897

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  95. Yoshino T, Tomozawa I, Sugimoto T (1993) Results of statistical analysis oflow‐frequency seismogenic EM emissions as precursors to earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Phys Earth Planet Interi77:21–31

    ADS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2009 Springer-Verlag

About this entry

Cite this entry

Uyeda, S., Kamogawa, M., Nagao, T. (2009). Earthquakes, Electromagnetic Signals of. In: Meyers, R. (eds) Encyclopedia of Complexity and Systems Science. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-30440-3_158

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics