Abstract
The problem of explaining complex machine learning models, including Deep Neural Networks, has gained increasing attention over the last few years. While several methods have been proposed to explain network predictions, the definition itself of explanation is still debated. Moreover, only a few attempts to compare explanation methods from a theoretical perspective has been done. In this chapter, we discuss the theoretical properties of several attribution methods and show how they share the same idea of using the gradient information as a descriptive factor for the functioning of a model. Finally, we discuss the strengths and limitations of these methods and compare them with available alternatives.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
DeepLIFT has been designed specifically for feed-forward neural networks and therefore assumes no multiplicative interactions. The gradient-based formulation generalizes the method to other architectures but does not guarantee meaningful results outside the scope DeepLIFT was designed for.
- 2.
In fact, \(\epsilon \)-LRP and DeepLIFT (Rescale) are not implementation invariant so the result might change depending on the actual implementation of the max function in the network. For example, this can be implemented as a primitive operation (max-pooling) or, for positive numbers, it can be implicitly implemented by a two-layer network with three hidden units: \(y = 0.5 \cdot (ReLU(x_1-x_2) + ReLU(x_2-x_1) + ReLU(x_1+x_2)\). In both cases, our reference implementation [3] produces the same attributions for all gradient-based methods, including \(\epsilon \)-LRP and DeepLIFT (Rescale).
References
Abadi, M., et al.: TensorFlow: large-scale machine learning on heterogeneous systems (2015). https://www.tensorflow.org/
Adebayo, J., Gilmer, J., Muelly, M., Goodfellow, I., Hardt, M., Kim, B.: Sanity checks for saliency maps. In: Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, pp. 9524–9535 (2018)
Ancona, M., Ceolini, E., Oztireli, C., Gross, M.: Towards better understanding of gradient-based attribution methods for deep neural networks. In: 6th International Conference on Learning Representations (ICLR) (2018)
Bach, S., Binder, A., Montavon, G., Klauschen, F., Müller, K.R., Samek, W.: On pixel-wise explanations for non-linear classifier decisions by layer-wise relevance propagation. PLoS ONE 10(7), e0130140 (2015)
Balduzzi, D., Frean, M., Leary, L., Lewis, J.P., Ma, K.W.D., McWilliams, B.: The shattered gradients problem: if resnets are the answer, then what is the question? In: Proceedings of the 34th International Conference on Machine Learning, ICML 2017, vol. 70, pp. 342–350 (2017). JMLR.org
Doshi-Velez, F., Kim, B.: Towards a rigorous science of interpretable machine learning. arXiv (2017). https://arxiv.org/abs/1702.08608
Fong, R.C., Vedaldi, A.: Interpretable explanations of black boxes by meaningful perturbation. In: Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision, pp. 3429–3437 (2017)
Ghorbani, A., Abid, A., Zou, J.: Interpretation of neural networks is fragile. In: AAAI 2019 (2019)
Goodfellow, I.J., Shlens, J., Szegedy, C.: Explaining and harnessing adversarial examples. In: International Conference on Learning Representations (ICLR) (2015)
Goodman, B., Flaxman, S.: European union regulations on algorithmic decision-making and a “right to explanation”. In: ICML Workshop on Human Interpretability in Machine Learning (WHI) (2016)
Kindermans, P., Schütt, K., Müller, K., Dähne, S.: Investigating the influence of noise and distractors on the interpretation of neural networks. In: NIPS Workshop on Interpretable Machine Learning in Complex Systems (2016)
Krizhevsky, A., Sutskever, I., Hinton, G.E.: Imagenet classification with deep convolutional neural networks. In: Proceedings of NIPS, pp. 1097–1105 (2012)
Kutner, M.H., Nachtsheim, C., Neter, J.: Applied Linear Regression Models. McGraw-Hill/Irwin, New York (2004)
LeCun, Y., Bengio, Y., Hinton, G.: Deep learning. Nature 521(7553), 436–444 (2015)
Lipton, Z.C.: The mythos of model interpretability. In: ICML Workshop on Human Interpretability of Machine Learning (2016)
Lundberg, S.M., Lee, S.I.: A unified approach to interpreting model predictions. In: Guyon, I., et al. (eds.) Proceedings of Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems (NIPS), pp. 4765–4774 (2017)
Mnih, V., et al.: Human-level control through deep reinforcement learning. Nature 518(7540), 529–533 (2015)
Montavon, G., Lapuschkin, S., Binder, A., Samek, W., Müller, K.R.: Explaining nonlinear classification decisions with deep Taylor decomposition. Pattern Recogn. 65, 211–222 (2017)
Montavon, G., Samek, W., Müller, K.R.: Methods for interpreting and understanding deep neural networks. Digital Signal Process. 73, 1–15 (2018)
Nie, W., Zhang, Y., Patel, A.: A theoretical explanation for perplexing behaviors of back propagation-based visualizations. In: ICML 2018 (2018)
Paszke, A., et al.: Automatic differentiation in PyTorch. In: NIPS Autodiff Workshop (2017)
Ribeiro, M.T., Singh, S., Guestrin, C.: “Why Should I Trust You?”: explaining the predictions of any classifier. In: Proceedings of the 22nd ACM SIGKDD International Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining, KDD 2016, ACM, New York, NY, USA, pp. 1135–1144 (2016)
Roth, A.E.: The Shapley Value: Essays in Honor of Lloyd S. Shapley. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (1988)
Samek, W., Binder, A., Montavon, G., Lapuschkin, S., Müller, K.R.: Evaluating the visualization of what a deep neural network has learned. IEEE Trans. Neural Networks Learn. Syst. 28(11), 2660–2673 (2017)
Selvaraju, R.R., Cogswell, M., Das, A., Vedantam, R., Parikh, D., Batra, D.: Grad-CAM: visual explanations from deep networks via gradient-based localization. In: Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision, pp. 618–626 (2017)
Shapley, L.S.: A value for n-person games. Contrib. Theory Games 2(28), 307–317 (1953)
Shrikumar, A., Greenside, P., Kundaje, A.: Learning important features through propagating activation differences. In: Proceedings of the 34th International Conference on Machine Learning, Proceedings of Machine Learning Research, PMLR, International Convention Centre, Sydney, Australia, vol. 70, pp. 3145–3153, 06–11 August 2017
Shrikumar, A., Greenside, P., Shcherbina, A., Kundaje, A.: Not just a black box: learning important features through propagating activation differences. arXiv preprint arXiv:1605.01713 (2016)
Silver, D., et al.: Mastering the game of go with deep neural networks and tree search. Nature 529(7587), 484–489 (2016)
Simonyan, K., Vedaldi, A., Zisserman, A.: Deep inside convolutional networks: visualising image classification models and saliency maps. In: ICLR Workshop (2014)
Smilkov, D., Thorat, N., Kim, B., Viégas, F., Wattenberg, M.: SmoothGrad: removing noise by adding noise. In: ICML Workshop on Visualization for Deep Learning (2017)
Springenberg, J.T., Dosovitskiy, A., Brox, T., Riedmiller, M.: Striving for simplicity: the all convolutional net. In: ICLR 2015 Workshop (2015)
Sundararajan, M., Taly, A., Yan, Q.: Axiomatic attribution for deep networks. In: Proceedings of the 34th International Conference on Machine Learning, Proceedings of Machine Learning Research, PMLR, International Convention Centre, Sydney, Australia, vol. 70, pp. 3319–3328, 06–11 August 2017
Szegedy, C., Vanhoucke, V., Ioffe, S., Shlens, J., Wojna, Z.: Rethinking the inception architecture for computer vision. In: Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, pp. 2818–2826 (2016)
Szegedy, C., et al.: Intriguing properties of neural networks. In: International Conference on Learning Representations (ICLR) (2014)
Wu, Y., et al.: Google’s neural machine translation system: bridging the gap between human and machine translation. Trans. Assoc. Comput. Linguist. 5, 339–351 (2017)
Zeiler, M.D., Fergus, R.: Visualizing and understanding convolutional networks. In: Fleet, D., Pajdla, T., Schiele, B., Tuytelaars, T. (eds.) ECCV 2014. LNCS, vol. 8689, pp. 818–833. Springer, Cham (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-10590-1_53
Zintgraf, L.M., Cohen, T.S., Adel, T., Welling, M.: Visualizing deep neural network decisions: prediction difference analysis. In: International Conference on Learning Representations (2017)
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2019 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Ancona, M., Ceolini, E., Öztireli, C., Gross, M. (2019). Gradient-Based Attribution Methods. In: Samek, W., Montavon, G., Vedaldi, A., Hansen, L., Müller, KR. (eds) Explainable AI: Interpreting, Explaining and Visualizing Deep Learning. Lecture Notes in Computer Science(), vol 11700. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28954-6_9
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28954-6_9
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-28953-9
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-28954-6
eBook Packages: Computer ScienceComputer Science (R0)