Abstract
Sponges and corals are ecologically important members of the marine community. Climate change, while harmful to corals, has historically been favorable to sponges. Sponge population dynamics are studied by analyzing core samples of marine sediment. To date this analysis has been performed by microscopic visual inspection of core cross sections to distinguish spicules (the rigid silica components of sponge skeletons) from the residue of other silica-using organisms. Since this analysis is both slow and error prone, complete analysis of multiple cross sections is impossible.
FlowCam® technology can produce tens of thousands of microphotographs of individual core sample particles in a few minutes. Individual photos must then be classified in silico. We have developed a Deep Learning classifier, called Poriferal Vision, that distinguishes sponge spicules from non-spicule particles. Small training sets were enhanced using image augmentation to achieve accuracy of at least 95%. A Support Vector Machine trained on the same data achieved accuracy of at most 86%. Our results demonstrate the efficacy of Deep Learning for analyzing core samples, and show that our classifier will be an effective tool for large-scale analysis.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Conway, K.W., Barrie, J.V., Krautter, M.: Geomorphology of unique reefs on the western Canadian shelf: sponge reefs mapped by multibeam bathymetry. Geo-Mar. Lett. 25(4), 205–213 (2005)
Yahel, G., Whitney, F., Reiswig, H.M., Eerkes-Medrano, D.I., Leys, S.P.: In situ feeding and metabolism of glass sponges (Hexactinellida, Porifera) studied in a deep temperate fjord with a remotely operated submersible. Limnol. Oceanogr. 52(1), 428–440 (2007)
Kahn, A.S., Yahel, G., Chu, J.W.F., Tunnicliffe, V., Leys, S.P.: Benthic grazing and carbon sequestration by deep-water glass sponge reefs. Limnol. Oceanogr. 60(1), 78–88 (2015)
West, R.R.: Temporal changes in Carboniferous reef mound communities. PALAIOS 3(2), 152 (1988)
Brunton, F.R., Dixon, O.A.: Siliceous sponge-microbe biotic associations and their recurrence through the phanerozoic as reef mound constructors. PALAIOS 9(4), 370 (1994)
Kiessling, W., Simpson, C.: On the potential for ocean acidification to be a general cause of ancient reef crises: ancient reef crises. Glob. Change Biol. 17(1), 56–67 (2011)
Aiello, I.W., Ravelo, A.C.: Evolution of marine sedimentation in the Bering Sea since the Pliocene. Geosphere 8(6), 1231–1253 (2012)
Birkeland, C. (ed.): Life and Death of Coral Reefs. Chapman and Hall, New York (1997)
Reaka-Kudla, M.L., Wilson, D.E., Wilson, E.O.: Biodiversity II. Joseph Henry Press, Washington, D.C. (1997)
Glynn, P.W.: Coral reef bleaching: ecological perspectives. Coral Reefs 12(1), 1–17 (1993). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00303779
Hughes, T.P.: Climate change, human impacts, and the resilience of coral reefs. Science 301(5635), 929–933 (2003)
De’ath, G., Fabricius, K.E., Sweatman, H., Puotinen, M.: The 27-year decline of coral cover on the Great Barrier Reef and its causes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 109(44), 17995–17999 (2012)
Hoegh-Guldberg, O., et al.: Coral reefs under rapid climate change and ocean acidification. Science 318(5857), 1737–1742 (2007)
Wisshak, M., Schönberg, C.H.L., Form, A., Freiwald, A.: Ocean acidification accelerates reef bioerosion. PLoS ONE 7(9), e45124 (2012)
Albright, R.: Reviewing the effects of ocean acidification on sexual reproduction and early life history stages of reef-building corals. J. Mar. Biol. 2011, 1–14 (2011)
Goreau, T., McClanahan, T., Hayes, R., Strong, A.: Conservation of coral reefs after the 1998 global bleaching event. Conserv. Biol. 14(1), 5–15 (2000)
Nakićenović, N., Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (eds.): Special Report on Emissions Scenarios: A Special Report of Working Group III of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, New York (2000)
Bell, J.J., Davy, S.K., Jones, T., Taylor, M.W., Webster, N.S.: Could some coral reefs become sponge reefs as our climate changes? Glob. Change Biol. 19(9), 2613–2624 (2013)
Chu, J., Leys, S.: High resolution mapping of community structure in three glass sponge reefs (Porifera, Hexactinellida). Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 417, 97–113 (2010)
Beaulieu, S.E.: Life on glass houses: sponge stalk communities in the deep sea. Mar. Biol. 138(4), 803–817 (2001)
Marliave, J.B., Conway, K.W., Gibbs, D.M., Lamb, A., Gibbs, C.: Biodiversity and rockfish recruitment in sponge gardens and bioherms of southern British Columbia, Canada. Mar. Biol. 156(11), 2247–2254 (2009)
Guillas, K.C., Kahn, A.S., Grant, N., Archer, S.K., Dunham, A., Leys, S.P.: Settlement of juvenile glass sponges and other invertebrate cryptofauna on the Hecate Strait glass sponge reefs. Invertebr. Biol. 138(4), e12266 (2019)
Graham, M.D., et al.: High-resolution imaging particle analysis of freshwater cyanobacterial blooms: FlowCam analysis of cyanobacteria. Limnol. Oceanogr. Methods 16(10), 669–679 (2018)
Widrow, B., Rumelhart, D.E., Lehr, M.A.: Neural networks: applications in industry, business and science. Commun. ACM 37, 93–106 (1994)
Rawat, W., Wang, Z.: Deep convolutional neural networks for image classification: a comprehensive review. Neural Comput. 29(9), 2352–2449 (2017)
Krizhevsky, A., Sutskever, I., Hinton, G.E.: ImageNet classification with deep convolutional neural networks. Commun. ACM 60(6), 84–90 (2017)
Shorten, C., Khoshgoftaar, T.M.: A survey on image data augmentation for deep learning. J. Big Data 6(1), 1–48 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40537-019-0197-0
Cortes, C., Vapnik, V.: Support-vector networks. Mach. Learn. 20(3), 273–297 (1995)
Chapelle, O., Haffner, P., Vapnik, V.N.: Support vector machines for histogram-based image classification. IEEE Trans. Neural Netw. 10(5), 1055–1064 (1999)
Schlung, S.A., et al.: Millennial-scale climate change and intermediate water circulation in the Bering Sea from 90 ka: a high-resolution record from IODP Site U1340: Bering Sea climate change since 90 KA. Paleoceanography 28(1), 54–67 (2013)
Bradski, G.R., Kaehler, A.: Learning OpenCV: Computer Vision with the OpenCV Library, 1st edn. O’Reilly, Beijing (2011)
Ramer, U.: An iterative procedure for the polygonal approximation of plane curves. Comput. Graph. Image Process. 1(3), 244–256 (1972)
Deng, G., Cahill, L.W.: An adaptive Gaussian filter for noise reduction and edge detection. In: 1993 IEEE Conference Record Nuclear Science Symposium and Medical Imaging Conference (1993)
Abadi, M., et al.: TensorFlow: a system for large-scale machine learning, p. 21 (2016)
Hahnloser, R.H.R., Sarpeshkar, R., Mahowald, M.A., Douglas, R.J., Seung, H.S.: Digital selection and analogue amplification coexist in a cortex-inspired silicon circuit. Nature 405, 947–951 (2000)
Kilian, J., Siegelmann, H.T.: The dynamic universality of sigmoidal neural networks. Inf. Comput. 128(1), 48–56 (1996)
Pedregosa, F., et al.: Scikit-learn: machine learning in Python. J. Mach. Learn. Res. 12, 2825–2830 (2011)
Sahak, R., Mansor, W., Lee, Y.K., Yassin, A.I.M., Zabidi, A.: Performance of combined support vector machine and principal component analysis in recognizing infant cry with asphyxia. In: 2010 Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology (2010)
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this paper
Cite this paper
Saxena, S., Heller, P., Kahn, A.S., Aiello, I. (2020). Poriferal Vision: Classifying Benthic Sponge Spicules to Assess Historical Impacts of Marine Climate Change. In: Helic, D., Leitner, G., Stettinger, M., Felfernig, A., Raś, Z.W. (eds) Foundations of Intelligent Systems. ISMIS 2020. Lecture Notes in Computer Science(), vol 12117. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-59491-6_19
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-59491-6_19
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-59490-9
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-59491-6
eBook Packages: Computer ScienceComputer Science (R0)