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1 Introduction

The Chernobyl nuclear disaster report of the International Atomic Energy Agency [1] states that it is academically and socially important to conduct ecological studies regarding the levels and effects of radiation exposure on the wild animal populations over several generations. Immediately following the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant disaster, remnants of which are shown in Fig. 1, Ishida (a research collaborator at the University of Tokyo) started conducting regular ecological studies of wild animals in the northern Abukuma Mountains near the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant, where high levels of radiation were detected. Ishida aims to place automatic recording devices at over 500 locations, and has been collecting and analyzing vocalizations of target wild animals. The long-term and wide-range monitoring is required to understand the effects of the nuclear accident because he has not yet little evidence of the direct effects of radioactivity on wildlife at Fukushima [2].

Fig. 1.
figure 1

Wildlife near the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant [5]

Ecological studies of wild animals involve recording and analyzing spatial information associated with animal species (e.g., vocalizations, locations, food sources, and environmental conditions, such as weather information) using ubiquitous and wearable technologies. In studying wild animals in environments close to urban areas, a ubiquitous system can provide the means for achieving an effective study [3]. In studying wild animals in their habitats, however, electric power sources and information network infrastructures are often limited, because the provision of such resources is expensive in the wild (e.g., near the ground surface of the forest) and tend to be in areas with limited number of users. As an example, mobile phones are out of range in approximately 70% of Japan; note that this is not a population coverage ratio [4].

In this paper, we present our vision of CPSS (based on human–computer–biosphere interaction (HCBI), illustrated in Fig. 2) by offering a conceptual overview, currently developed interfaces, related work, and a discussion. Not only do we propose a solution to the sustainability problem, we also implement a documentation framework describing how complex interactions of living organisms within such natural ecosystems can be connected via human–computer interaction (HCI). Using a multidisciplinary approach, we propose a view of CPSS-based design and interfaces to support our future society.

Fig. 2.
figure 2

Human–computer–biosphere interaction (HCBI) concept [10], an extension of human–computer interaction (HCI) [11] and human–computer–pet interaction (HCPI) concepts [3].

2 Background

Human communities employ a wide variety of technologies that interact with nature. One of the most ancient forms of information communication technology involves the use of carrier pigeons: homing pigeons that can carry messages and find their way home over extremely long distances. In the United States, the 1800 km pigeon race, wherein specially trained racing pigeons are released and return to their houses over carefully measured distances, is the longest pigeon race in the world [6]. In the field of computer network engineering, on April 1, 1990, Waitzman announced a proposal to carry Internet Protocol (IP) traffic by birds such as homing pigeons (RFC 1149) [7]. Even though this was an April Fool’s joke, several experiments proved that the method was effective [8, 9].

April Fool’s jokes aside, wild animals adapt to their habitat and environment. They maintain their biological diversity by internetworking with a wide variety of other animals on the basis of a cloud-like food chain. Their actions comprise individual actions (ranging from a few kilometers to a few tens of kilometers) and group actions (ranging from a few tens of kilometers to a few hundred kilometers). Through individual actions, animals sense spatial information necessary for survival in their own territory, whereas through group actions, they periodically share obtained information, optimizing for the entire group, and therefore achieving evolution and the prosperity of the species.

In this study, we integrate these wild animal actions with an advanced HCI technology to solve the problem with existing systems described in backgounrd section. Specifically, in this study, we aim to achieve our goal by developing a system in which wild animals carry a wearable sensor that records spatial information in their territory through individual actions and then shares the information obtained through group actions, all with reduced power requirements, eventually uploading the shared information to the Internet.

Our prototype CPSS concept, illustrated in Fig. 3, expands our research results to date and obtains spatial information using wild animals with the specific goal of supporting ecological studies. We have already conducted preliminary research and obtained results in regards to recording sensor data and sharing information using wild animals as well as guiding wild animals [10, 1214].

Fig. 3.
figure 3

Carrier Pigeon-like Sensing System (CPSS) concept image

As described above, researchers have started to address and study wearable systems for wild animals. In the United States, the “Crittercam” project [15] is proceeding under the leadership of multiple academic institutions. In Japan, Takahashi’s research group at Fukushima University has played a key role in measuring radiation exposure by mounting collar-shaped sensor equipment on wild Japanese macaques [16]; however, in both these projects, it has been necessary to recapture monitored subjects, which limits the geographical area of the study. To our knowledge, our proposed system is the first innovative sensing framework in the world. CPSS will produce results for wearable systems for animals that goes significantly beyond existing research.

3 CPSS Conceptual Overview

As noted above and illustrated in Figs. 3 and 4, our proposed system comprises wearable sensors worn by wild animals that record spatial information in the animals’ territory through individual actions, share such obtained information in a power-saving manner through group actions, and eventually upload the shared information to the Internet. In short, our system is a sensing framework optimized for the environment that is based on the HCBI concept illustrated in Fig. 2, which is an extension of both HCI [11] and human–computer–pet interaction (HCPI) [3]. In the field of computer-supported cooperative work (CSCW), such computer-interaction paradigms support specific activities. For example, we exchange our ideas, thoughts, theories, and messages by encoding them into transferable words, communicating these words through space via computer systems, and then decoding them; however, in our daily lives, we implicitly exchange and share a great deal of additional nonverbal information, such as the presence and mood of others, to maintain our social relationships [17].

Fig. 4.
figure 4

Comparing previous methods with our proposed prototype

Considering implicit (background) information opens up new possibilities for interactions through nonlinguistic wearable forms and nonverbal remote communications between different species. Wearable computing devices enable us to extend our spatial interactions and develop human-to-human communication beyond physical distance [18].

HCPI as illustrated in Fig. 2, is a novel physical interaction paradigm that proposes a symbiosis between humans and pets via computers and the Internet as a new form of media. As an example, Botanicalls was developed to provide a new interaction method between plants and people to develop better and longer-lasting relationships that go beyond physical and genetic distances [19]. From this paradigm, computer systems become a medium through which a telepresence can be expressed among different species in the biosphere through nonlinguistic means that are perceived and understood by individuals, thus violating the rules of linguistic science.

Regardless of how advanced the aforementioned technologies are, these are spatial interactions. We expect some feedback from others before we issue a command to end an interaction; however, there are many temporal interactions in our daily lives. The sounds of singing birds, buzzing insects, swaying leaves, and trickling water implicitly imprint the presence of space in our minds. When we are not in a forest, recalling the memory of a forest takes us back to the same place. The crucial factor here is not the means of conveyance (i.e., words or language) but the intangible “something” that hovers around us, an atmosphere we cannot exactly identify but lasts beyond generations [20]. This interaction follows the theory of natural selection proposed by Charles Darwin. The theory of evolution, which has become a fundamental cornerstone science, was introduced to readers in Darwin’s book on the origin of species that he wrote after visiting the Galápagos Islands [21].

We propose that, much like elements of natural selection, the concept of HCBI can be extended to spatial interactions from countable objects, such as animals and plants in space, to their temporal environment, which is an uncountable, complex, nonlinguistic, “something” beyond generations.

In the HCBI framework, the sounds of a forest or other such natural environments are all information cues that help us understand natural selection. Thus, through HCBI, we can experience the wonderment of the global ecological system with all living beings and their relationships, including their interactions with the elements of the biosphere. With HCBI, we begin to interact with inaccessible ecological natural systems beyond space and time.

4 Research Prototypes

4.1 Ubiquitous Real-Time Systems

As introduced above, in ecological studies, it is desirable to develop a technology that most effectively supports the study with minimal resources. More specifically, we aim to establish a long-term continuously operating ubiquitous system that delivers, in real time, environmental information, such as sound. Researchers worldwide are conducting ecological studies by recording and analyzing the spatial information of wild animal vocalizations [22]. Furthermore, ecological studies of the environment close to urban areas are being conducted using cells phones [3]; however, it is difficult to confirm the behavior of wild animals using cell phones.

To record vocalizations of wild animals whose behaviors are difficult to predict, it is necessary to continuously operate a monitoring system. As it is difficult to conduct system maintenance due to severe environmental conditions of wild animal habitats (e.g., out of infrastructure service areas, and high-temperature and high-humidity environments), system redundancy becomes crucial. In a previous study, we have researched and developed a proprietary system that delivers and records environmental sounds in real-time [10]. This system has been almost continuously operational on Iriomote Island in Okinawa since 1996, using equipment such as that shown in Fig. 5. To date, the basic research on Iriomote Island has been expanded to include 18 domestic and international sites, including Los Angeles and the San Francisco Bay area in the United States, Sanshiro Pond at the Hongo Campus of the University of Tokyo in Japan, Kyoto Shokokuji Mizuharu in Suikinkutsu, Mumbai City in India, Antarctica Syowa Station (under construction), Morotsuka Village in Miyazaki, and Fukushima University in Japan. We have worked with project collaborators and have introduced our system to the University of Tokyo Chichibu Forest; Otsuchi in Iwate; Shinshu University; the University of Tokyo Fuji Forest; the University of Tokyo Hokkaido Forest (under construction); the University of Tokyo International Coastal Research Center; and on an uninhabited island in Iwate (also under construction). We have also been conducting research on ubiquitous interfaces for ecology studies of wild animals since April 1997. Illustrated in Fig. 5.

Fig. 5.
figure 5

Ubiquitous systems for real-time delivery of environmental sounds, and its long-term and continuous operation.

4.2 Uploading Individual Actions Data from Wild Animals

As described above, the applicability of ubiquitous systems is limited in ecological studies. In computer science, individuals and wild animals carrying wearable sensors to monitor behaviors and surrounding environments have been reported in early sensor network research [24]; however, it is not feasible to collect data from sensors on wild animals on a regular basis because of their unpredictability. To collect sensor data, wild animals need to come in contact with a sink node (in a ubiquitous system) connected to an external network such as the Internet; however, the chance of this occurring spontaneously is not high. Thus, it becomes important to guide wild animals. We proposed a method to guide wild animals based on Uexküll’s Umwelt theory [25] and verified its effectiveness with the NTT Docomo CSR research funding in 2007 [13]. In our study, Iriomote cats were equipped with wearable sensors and collected spatial information in their territory for two years. They were then remotely controlled and guided to a predetermined location to upload the data, as shown in the left-hand side image of Fig. 6. We verified the long-term operation of the system and repeated the experiments using wild deer in 2013, as shown in the right-hand side image of Fig. 6. Through these activities, we have established the ability to create a system in which wild animals carry wearable sensors, record spatial information in their territory through their individual actions, and upload this shared information to the Internet (Animal- Touch’n Go).

Fig. 6.
figure 6

A system that allows data obtained through individual actions to be uploaded from wild animals [13, 23].

Fig. 7.
figure 7

A system wherein wild animals record data through individual actions and share such data, with limited power requirements, through group actions [14].

4.3 Sharing Group Actions Data with Limited Power Resources

From the above, the use of wearable sensors to monitor behaviors and surrounding environments is useful for collecting individual actions data; however, it is not feasible to recharge such devices on a regular basis when they are used for wild animals. As noted above, to collect sensor data, wild animals need to encounter a sink node connected to an external network such as the Internet. Since the chances of this occurring are not high, it becomes important to reduce the power consumption and increase the lifetime of the sensor nodes. For a wireless sensor node, the power consumed by an acceleration sensor during operation is 100 times greater than that consumed by a sensor during communication [26].

We know from ethology that when land mammals with natural habitats near the ground surface of a forest encounter other land mammals, they exhibit behaviors that are different from those that they exhibit when they are alone [27]. When land mammals encounter other land mammals, it is likely that they are within communication range of the sensor node they carry. Thus, it is possible to significantly reduce power consumption and increase the lifetime of sensor nodes by activating communication among sensor nodes only upon detecting land mammals encountering other land mammals. Until this condition occurs, the sensor could and should be in the sleep mode.

Based on our research conducted on Iriomote cats, we designed an algorithm (shown in Fig. 8), verified its effectiveness using multiple mammals (four dogs), and implemented a system that can detect encounters among multiple mammals with 70% accuracy, illustrated in Fig. 7 [14]. In that study, we successfully established a system in which wild animals were equipped with wearable sensors that recorded spatial information in the animals’ territory through individual actions and shared the acquired information, with reduced power requirements, through group actions.

Fig. 8.
figure 8

Algorithm for data sharing between animals [14]

5 Discussion

As humans expand their sphere of influence, the clash between the benefits to human society and the conservation of ecosystems has become increasingly serious. We have seen spikes in the number of endangered species and crop damage caused by harmful wildlife species [13]. When humans physically interact with surrounding ecosystems, the destruction of such ecosystems is often unavoidable. Although physically separating humans and ecosystems would be the most effective means to conserving such ecosystems, natural heritage sites and monuments are closely tied to tourism, agriculture, and forestry. Thus, it is not possible to completely separate these entities.

In our previous study, we proposed HCBI [10], a concept wherein humans and ecosystems interact via computers to avoid major conflicts between one another. More specifically, we integrated computers and art, proposing an interaction model for cooperation between real spaces at remote locations and ordinary everyday spaces; this is accomplished through information spaces that consider various physical, economic, and ethical constraints. With active support from users, we plan to provide our research results to society.

The Japanese government and research institutions have funded research in technological support of ecological studies of wild animals involving wearable monitoring systems. Funding for research related to the conservation of ecosystems has primarily been from the Ministry of the Environment and science-oriented institutions. In addition, the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, and other agriculture-oriented institutions have funded research on countermeasures against harmful wildlife species. There is no single research framework at any educational or research institutions in Japan that fosters research with an information science focus in such areas because computer science research generally requires information and power supply infrastructures.

At the time of writing, it has been 28 years since the Chernobyl nuclear disaster. In that time, wildlife has returned and appears to be thriving in the surrounding forests [28]. Although a staggering 20-million wild animals were killed in the immediate aftermath of the disaster [29], it is believed that a very small number of wild animals survived and adapted to the changed environment. These animals evolved and prospered in high-radiation areas; however, it took a long time to establish research organizations to conduct ecological studies, and the evolutionary process of the surviving animals remains unknown.

Insights into the survival and evolution of radiation-exposed wild animals may result in insights into agriculture and forestry, animal husbandry, and medical care; however, long-term ecological studies of wild animals and their radiation exposure levels are required [1]. Regarding the recovery efforts after the Fukushima nuclear power plant disaster, the importance of ecological studies being conducted from the very beginning of a disaster has been pointed out [30]. As described above, Ishida, who has conducted ecological studies since immediately after the disaster, has stated that it would be extremely difficult to continue conducting ecological studies on an ongoing basis [2]; however, HCI can address these issues, and we claim with confidence that our proposed project will successfully address these issues.

6 Conclusion

Investigations into natural environments consider living creatures and their surrounding environments; such investigations are important for reviewing the value of biological diversity from various perspectives. It is currently possible to obtain ecological information regarding wild animals in remote areas using various ubiquitous systems; however, information and electrical power supply infrastructures are essential to the success of these systems, and thus, they are limited to areas serviced by such infrastructure.

To address this limitation, researchers have started applying wearable sensors to wild animals. To collect the data recorded by these wearable sensors, it is usually necessary to recapture the monitored subjects; thus, wearable sensors are limited. To solve such problems with existing systems, we proposed the Carrier Pigeon-like Sensing System (CPSS), a system in which wild animals carry a wearable sensor that records spatial information in their territory through individual actions, shares the information obtained through group actions (with reduced power requirements), and eventually uploads the shared information to the Internet.

More specifically, in this paper, we (a) integrated results established through preliminary research into a system for specific wild animals, (b) evaluated the effectiveness of our implemented system through ecological studies conducted by system users, and (c) constructed a framework to support ecological studies around the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant through collaboration with international institutions within the domain of HCI.