Keywords

1 Introduction

In learning history, it is important to promote historical thought, which involves understanding causal relationships among historical events and a chain of the relationships [1]. In general, learners are expected to learn such causal relationships and their chains from an instructional material such as textbook. However, historical learning is not easy for the learners. It is particularly hard to find out the causal relationships embedded in the material. In addition, the learners often finish learning without becoming aware of the causal chains, which is necessary for understanding the suitability of the causal relationships.

In this paper, we propose a causal map, in which historical events are represented as nodes, and the causal relationships are represented as links between the nodes. It can visualize the causal relationships and the causal chains. In order to promote understanding of the causal relationships, related work on historical learning support has proposed a method of helping learners generate a map including the causal relationships from instructional text [2]. However, it is not necessarily easy to become aware of them during the map generation. It also seems hard to find out the causal chains embedded in the text to understand the suitability of the causal relationships. The causal map proposed in this paper accordingly aims to allow the learners to become aware of not only the causal relationships between historical events but also the causal chains with pseudo-haptics on tablet media such as iPad.

Pseudo-haptics is illusion about the tactile sense caused by uncomfortable feeling between physical manipulation of an object and its visual movement. We have already ascertained that pseudo-haptic feedback for manipulating a concept map representing knowledge learned from an instructional text could promote an awareness of important concepts or important relationships embedded in the text [3]. In this work, we attempt to introduce the pseudo-haptics into historical understanding.

In this paper, we demonstrate a method to present pseudo-haptic feedback in composing a causal map. In operating the nodes corresponding to the key historical events and the links included in a causal chain, the learners are provided with the visual movements, which intend to bring about pseudo-haptic senses such as heaviness and tension. In case the learners operate a link included in the causal chain, a pseudo-haptic feedback involving tensile strength is transmitted among all the links in the chain, which would allow them to become aware of the causal chain. Such cognitive awareness would also allow the learners to understand the suitability of the causal relationships between the original cause and the end effect of the chain.

This paper also demonstrates a tablet tool on iPad, which helps learners compose a causal map from instructional text about history. This tool prepares a text and the corresponding correct causal map including all causal relationships embedded in the text. The learners are required to compose a causal map corresponding to the correct map in the following two steps. In the first step, they are expected to compose an overview map, which includes only the key historical events. In the second step, they are required to complete the causal map with WHY-questions, which includes several intermediate events between the primary events necessary for representing the causal chains.

In the following, we first describe historical learning. Second, we describe a causal map used in historical learning, and how it is composed. Third, we describe how pseudo-haptic feedback from touch operations is presented and what kind of cognitive effects is obtained from it. Let us finally demonstrates a tablet tool on iPad, which helps the learners compose a causal map from an instructional text.

2 Historical Learning

In social studies, learners are expected to learn social events/phenomenon and the principles involved in them, which can be often used for explaining why and how the events occur. With such principles, the learners can explain the similar events/phenomenon. In learning history, historical events could be also explained with the principles. It is particularly important to explain why and how one historical event brings about another event. The learners should accordingly learn the explanatory principles to understand the historical events.

However, it is quite difficult to find out the principles from the social events described in instructional text. In learning history, there is another method for understanding the events, which allows the learners to find out the causal relationship between one event as a cause and another event as an effect, and its suitability. The causal relationship also involves several intermediate events between the cause and the effect. This method allows the learners to explain a chain of the causal relationships between the intermediate events to understand the suitability of the relationship between the cause and the effect.

2.1 Related Work

[4] proposed a model for explaining causal relationships between social events, which includes three variables representing causes, effects, and their intermediates. This model allows the learners to build up a theory for explaining the causal relationship between the cause and effect from WHY-question that indicates why the cause brings about the effect by means of the intermediate events. For example, let us consider the following WHY-question:

“Why did the Mongolian invasion bring about the Einin Order for Benevolent Government issued by Kamakura Shogunate?”

Such a question could prompt the learners to build up the theory for explaining the causal relationship between the Mongolian invasion as a cause and the Einin Order as the effect. They are expected to find out the intermediate events to answer the question. This allows them to more deeply understand the causal relationship between the cause and the effect. In case they do not know the intermediates, on the other hand, they would fail to explain. It is accordingly necessary to provide the learners with some aids for uncovering the intermediate events.

Another related work proposed the method for providing learners with a number of WHY-questions in gradual detail [5], which gradually ask the intermediate events and their causal relationships. This allows the learners to understand the causal relationship between the cause and the effect, and the suitability. However, the learners could not fully find out intermediate events to explain, which would result in insufficient understanding of the causal relationship.

This paper accordingly proposes a method to allow the learners to fully pick up the mediated events as follows.

2.2 Causal Map-Based Approach

This paper proposes a method to allow the learners to compose a causal map, in which historical events are represented as nodes, and the causal relationships are represented as links between the nodes. It can visualize the relationships between the events and their causal chains. However, it is difficult to extract the events from an instructional text and to compose the causal map. In addition, the learners finish learning with insufficient understanding of the causal relationships. In order to resolve this issue, we propose the causal map composition in two steps. In the first step, the learners are expected to compose a map with the prepared events that are extracted as key events in advance from the text. In this step, they could understand an overview of the causal map to be composed.

In the second step, the learners are expected to pick up the intermediate events from the text to make their chain including the original cause and the end effect. The candidates for the intermediates are underlined in advance in the text. When they get stuck, they are also given the WHY-questions that intend to promote picking up the intermediates. When the learners operate the nodes as key events or the nodes included in the chain of the intermediate events, in addition, pseudo-haptic feedback is provided so that they can become aware of the key events or the chain. In this step, they could deeply understand the causal relationship between the original cause and the end effect, and its suitability with the intermediate events.

3 Causal Map Composition

Let us demonstrate the causal map composition with Fig. 1. Figure 1(A) shows an instructional text, which describes “Decline of Kamakura Shogunate”. Figure 1(B) shows the causal map to be composed from Fig. 1(A). This map includes the original causes of decline of Kamakura Shogunate, which are indicated by the three nodes, the Mongolian invasions, the division succession, and the infiltration money economy. However, it would be generally difficult for the learners to understand the suitability of the causal relationship between the original causes and the end effect without the intermediate events and the causal chain.

Fig. 1.
figure 1

A causal map of decline of the Kamakura Shogunate

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The causal map composition in this paper has two steps. In the first step, the learners are expected to compose a map shown in Fig. 2, which includes the key events prepared from the text. The map represents an overview of the causal relationships embedded in “Decline of Kamakura Shogunate”. In the second step, the learners are expected to pick up the events as intermediate ones between the key events from the parts underlined in the text shown in Fig. 1(A). The events picked up are inserted between the key events.

Fig. 2.
figure 2

A causal map of first step

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On the other hand, the learners cannot always pick up the intermediate events fully to complete the causal map shown in Fig. 1(B). In this case, WHY-questions are presented to them. If the learners do not pick up any events between the node the division of succession and poverty of vassals in the Kamakura, for example, the following question is presented:

“Why was poverty of vassals in the Kamakura caused by the division of succession?”

They would attempt to search for the reasons in the text to understand it is because “the estate of the vassals decreased”. They are then expected to locate the node between the division of succession and poverty of vassals in the Kamakura, and to make the links. They are required to continue such map composition and WHY-question answering until they complete the causal map shown in Fig. 1(B).

In addition, the two types of pseudo-haptic feedback are provided on a causal map composition in the second step. When the learners operate the initial nodes as key events located in the first step, they first have the pseudo-haptic feedback that feels heavy. It intends to remind them that the nodes are the key events. When they operate the intermediate nodes and links in the chain from the original cause node to the end effect node, they have the pseudo-haptic feedback that presents the propagation of tensile force in the chain. For example, let us consider the chain of the original node the division of succession, the estates of the vassals decreased, and the end effect poverty of vassals in the Kamakura. The three events have the causal relationships. When the learners move the intermediate node the estates of the vassals decreased, the following visual information is demonstrated: the node the division of succession pushes the linked node the estates of the vassals decreased, then the pushed node next pushes the node poverty of vassals in the Kamakura. The pushed movement visualizes the propagation of the force from the original cause to the end effect, which suggests the causal chain.

4 Map Composition with Pseudo-Haptic Feedback

4.1 Pseudo-Haptic Feedback and Cognitive Effects

Pseudo-haptic is illusion about the tactile sense caused by uncomfortable feeling between physical manipulation of an object and its visual movement. When an object on the tablet is operated via finger, for example, it moves with a delay in comparison with the finger movement. Learners would feel that the object is heavy [6]. We have already ascertained that pseudo-haptic feedback for manipulating a concept map representing knowledge learned from an instructional text could promote an awareness of important concepts and relationships embedded in the text [3]. Presenting a heavy feeling could give an indication of an important concept. Presenting a tension could also give an indication of a strong relationship. As a result, it is possible to give cognitive effects to learner by presenting pseudo-haptic feedback. In addition, it can be expected to promote an understanding of the corresponding concept or relationship.

4.2 Causal Map with Pseudo-Haptic Feedback and Propagation of Force

The learners are provided with pseudo-haptic feedback and the propagation of force as shown in Table 1. In addition, the table shows cognitive awareness that is obtained from the pseudo-haptic feedback. For example, let us consider the second line shown in Table 1 with Fig. 3. When a learner operates the node poverty of vassals in the Kamakura, it moves with a delay in comparison with the touch operation. The visual movement represents heaviness of the node as the pseudo-haptic feedback, which suggests the key event.

Table 1. Pseudo-haptic feedback and the propagation of the force from operation
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Fig. 3.
figure 3

Part of a causal map of the decline of the Kamakura Shogunate

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In addition, let us also consider the third line shown in Table 1. When the learner moves the intermediate node prevent the vassal system in Kamakura from collapsing, the following visual information is demonstrated: the node poverty of vassals in the Kamakura pushes the linked node decrease of vassals who were appreciated to Kamakura Shogunate, then the pushed node next pushes the node prevent the vassal system in Kamakura from collapsing, and then the pushed node pushes the node the Shogunate issued Einin Order for Benevolent government. The pushed movement visualizes the propagation of the force from the original cause to the end effect, which suggests the causal chain. It can be expected to promote the historical understanding.

5 Causal Map Composition on Tablet Tool

We have developed a tablet tool on iPad, which can provide the learners with pseudo-haptic feedback according to Table 1. Figure 4 shows the user interface of the tool. Let us here describe the framework of the tablet tool, the causal map composition on the tool, and the learning process with the tool.

Fig. 4.
figure 4

User interface

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5.1 Framework

This tool prepares a text and the corresponding correct causal map including all causal relationships embedded in the text. The learners are required to compose a map corresponding to the correct map. The learners are expected to compose the map in the two steps. In the first step, they would use the prepared node to link and to compose an overview map. When they think the map is completed, they can push the button “Answer” that is prepared in the user interface.

If the learners complete the overview map, they are expected to move to the second step. In this step, the learners are expected to touch the underlined characters in the text to locate the intermediate nodes. They are then expected to refine the overview map using the located nodes to complete the correct map. In case the learners push the “Answer” button and the map is incomplete, the tool presents the WHY-questions that induce them to complement the incomplete causal relationships and chains. In addition, when the learners move the nodes that embed the pseudo-haptic feedback, the learners are provided with the corresponding feedback.

5.2 Map Operations

This tool provides learners with the map operations: movement of node, generation of node/link and delete of node/link. Movement of node is operated by drag on the node. The learners can touch and drag the node with fingers they want to move. Generation of link is operated by tap and draw. The learners can tap a node to become the starting point of the link. Then, they can draw the link to another node. Delete of link is operated by long tap. The learners can do long press on the links they want to delete.

6 Conclusions

This paper has described the causal map composition in learning history with pseudo-haptic feedback. It can be expected to promote the historical understanding. We have also demonstrated a causal map generation tool on iPad, which could produce pseudo-haptic feedback including the propagation of the force on touch operations.

In future, we will evaluate the potential of pseudo-haptic feedback and the propagation of the force in the causal map on tablet tool. In addition, we will confirm whether the tablet tool can promote historical understanding.