Introduction
Humanities and Sciences conform the “two cultures” of modern society. “Literary intellectuals” on the one hand and scientists on the other established a deep gulf or rift in between. That is the point of the Rede’s-Lecture The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution that was given by Sir Charles Percy Snow (1905-1980) at May 7, 1959 in the Senate House in Cambridge [40]. In this lecture he made the case of a breakdown of communication between these “two cultures” and he claimed that this breakdown is a major hindrance to solve the problems of the world. Without looking beyond one’s own nose, he claimed, both cultures will become poorer. Offspring of these two cultures is our classification of Hard and Soft Science.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Adam, A.: Artificial Knowing. Gender and the Thinking Machine. Routledge, London (1998)
Black, M.: Vagueness. An exercise in logical analysis. Philosophy of Science 4, 427–455 (1937)
Black, M.: Reasoning with loose concepts. Dialogue 2, 1–12 (1963)
Blair, B.: Interview with Lotfi Zadeh, Creator of Fuzzy Logic by Azerbaijada International (2.4) (winter 1994), http://www.azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/24_folder/24_articles/24_fuzzylogic.html
Brockman, J.: The Third Culture: Beyond the Scientific Revolution. Simon & Schuster (1995)
Carnap, R.: Logische Syntax der Sprache (1934); English translation, The Logical Syntax of Language. Kegan Paul (1937)
Carnap, R.: Mein Weg in die Philosophie. Philipp Reclam jun, Stuttgart (1993); Original English edition: Carnap, R.: Intellectual Autobiography. In: Schilpp, P. A. (ed.), The Philosophy of Rudolf Carnap = The Library of Living Philosophers. 11, pp. 1-84. Open Court, London (1963)
Carnap, R.: Der logische Aufbau der Welt. Weltkreis Verlag, Berlin-Schlachtensee (1928); English translation by George, R.A.: The Logical Structure of the World. Pseudoproblems in Philosophy. University of California Press (1967)
Laplace, P.S.: Essai Philosophique sur les Probabilités forming the introduction to his Théorie Analytique des Probabilités. V Courcier (1820); repr. In: Truscott, F.W., Emory, F.L. (trans.) A Philosophical Essay on Probabilities. Dover, New York (1951)
Church, A.: An unsolvable problem of elementary number theory. The American Journal of Mathematics 58, 345–363 (1935)
Collins, H.M.: Artificial Experts: Social Knowledge and Intelligent Machines. MIT Press, Cambridge (1990)
Dawkins, R.: The Selfish Gene. Oxford University Press, Oxford (1976)
Dawkins, R.: The Blind Watchmaker. W. W. Norton & Company, New York (1986)
Dawson, J.W.: Logical Dilemmas: The Life and Work of Kurt Gödel, p. 71 (1997)
Forsythe, D.: Engineering Knowledge: The Construction of Knowledge in Artificial Intelligence. Social Studies of Science 23(3), 445–477 (1993)
Fritz, W.B.: The Women of ENIAC. IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 18(3), 13–28 (1996)
Gould, S.J.: The Mismeasure of Man. Norton, New York (1996)
Gould, S.J.: The Structure of Evolutionary Theory. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press (2002)
Lenat, D.B., Guha, R.V.: Building Large Knowledge-Bused Systems Representation and Inference in the Cyc. Project. Addison Wesley, Reading (1990)
Gürer, D.: Women in Computing History. SIGSCE Bulletin 34(2), 116–120 (2002)
Haugeland, J.: Artificial Intelligence: The Very Idea. MIT Press, Cambridge (1985)
Turing, A.M.: On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem. Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society, Series 2 42, 230–265 (1936-1937); with corrections from Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society, Series 2 43, 544–546 (1937)
Light, J.S.: When Computers Were Women. Technology and Culture 40(3), 455–483 (1999)
Magdalena, L.: What is Soft Computing? Revisiting Possible Answers. International Journal of Computational Intelligence Systems 3(2), 148–159 (2010)
Menger, K.: Memories of Moritz Schlick. In: Gadol, E.T. (ed.) Rationality and Science. A Memorial Volume for Moritz Schlick in Celebration of the Centennial of his Birth, pp. 83–103. Springer, Vienna (1982)
Menger, K.: The New Logic: A 1932 Lecture. In: Selected Papers in Logics and Foundations, Didactics, Economics, Vienna Circle Collection, vol. 10. D. Reidel, Dordrecht (1979)
Minsky, M., Papert, S.: Perceptrons. MIT Press, Cambridge (1969)
von Neumann, J.: First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC, http://www.alt.ldv.ei.tum.de/lehre/pent/skript/VonNeumann.pdf
Papert, S.: One AI or many? In: Graubard, S.R. (ed.) The Artificial Intelligence Debate: False Starts, Real Foundations. MIT Press, Cambridge (1988)
Pinker, S.A.: How the Mind Works. Norton & Company, New York (1999)
Pinker, S.A.: The Stuff of Thought: Language as a Window into Human Nature. Penguin, New York (2008)
Rojas, R., Hashagen, U. (eds.): The First Computers: History and Architectures. MIT Press (2000)
Russell, B.: Introduction. In: [44]
Russell, B.V.: Vagueness. The Australasian Journal of Psychology and Philosophy 1, 84–92 (1923)
Sadegh-Zadeh, K.: Handbook of Analytic Philosophy of Medicine. Philosophy and Medicine, Springer, Berlin (to appear) (2012)
Seising, R. (ed.): Views on Fuzzy Sets and Systems from Different Perspectives. Philosophy and Logic, Criticisms and Applications. Studies in Fuzziness and Soft Computing, vol. 243, pp. 1–35. Springer, Berlin (2009)
Seising, R.: What is Soft Computing? – Bridging Gaps for the 21st Century Science. International Journal of Computational Intelligent Systems 3(2), 160–175 (2010)
Seising, R., Tabacchi, M. (eds.): Fuzziness and Medicine: Philosophical Reflections and Application Systems in Health Care. Studies in Fuzziness and Soft Computing. Springer, Berlin (to appear) (2012)
Shermer, M.: The Really Hard Science. Scientific American, September 16 (2007)
Snow, C.P.: The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution. Cambridge University Press (1960)
Snow, C.P.: Two Cultures: And a Second Look. An Expanded Version of the Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution. The University Press, Cambridge (1964)
Trillas, E.: La inteligencia artificial. Máquinas y personas, (ed.) Debate, Madrid (1998)
Trillas, E., Moraga, C., Guadarrama, S.: A (naïve) glance at Soft Computing. International Journal of Computational Intelligence and Systems (in Press 2011)
Wittgenstein, L.: Tractatus logico-philosophicus. Routledge & Kegan Paul, London (1922)
Wittgenstein, L.: Das Blaue Buch. In: Werkausgabe in acht Bänden. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, Bd. 5 (1984)
Wittgenstein, L.: Philosophical Investigations (1953)
Zadeh, L.A.: From Circuit Theory to System Theory. Proceedings of the IRE 50, 856–865 (1962)
Zadeh, L.A.: Fuzzy Sets. Information and Control 8, 338–353 (1965)
Zadeh, L.A.: Fuzzy Sets and Systems. In: Fox, J. (ed.) System Theory. Microwave Research Institute Symp., vol. XV, pp. 29–37. Polytechnic Press, Brooklyn (1965)
Zadeh, L.A.: Biological Application of the Theory of Fuzzy Sets and Systems. In: Proctor, L.D. (ed.) The Proceedings of an International Symposium on Biocybernetics of the Central Nervous System, pp. 199–206. Little, Brown and Comp., London (1969)
Zadeh, L.A.: Toward a Theory of Fuzzy Systems, Electronic Research Laboratory, University of California, Berkeley 94720, Report No. ERL-69-2 (June 1969)
Zadeh, L.A.: Towards a theory of fuzzy systems. In: Kalman, R.E., DeClaris, N. (eds.) Aspects of Network and System Theory, pp. 469–490. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York (1971)
Zadeh, L.A.: The Concept of a Linguistic Variable and its Application to Approximate Reasoning I. Information Science 8, 199–249 (1975)
Zadeh, L.A.: Making Computers Think like People. IEEE Spectrum 8, 26–32 (1984)
Zadeh, L.A.: Fuzzy Logic, Neural Networks and Soft Computing. Communications of the ACM 37(3), 77–84
Zadeh, L.A.: Soft computing and fuzzy logic. IEEE Software 11(6), 48–56 (1994)
Zadeh, L.A.: Fuzzy Logic = Computing with Words. IEEE Transactions on Fuzzy Systems 4(2), 103–111 (1996)
Zadeh, L.A.: From Computing with Numbers to Computing with Words - From Manipulation of Measurements to Manipulation of Perceptions. IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems-I: Fundamental Theory and Applications 45(1), 105–119 (1999)
Zadeh, L.A.: The Birth and Evolution of Fuzzy Logic – A Personal Perspective. Journal of Japan Society for Fuzzy Theory and Systems 11(6), 891–905 (1999)
Zadeh, L.A.: Applied Soft Computing - Foreword. Applied Soft Computing 1(1) (June 2001)
Zadeh, L.A.: A New Direction in AI. Toward a Computational Theory of Perceptions. AI-Magazine 22(1), 73–84 (2001)
Zadeh, L.A.: Foreword. Applied Soft Computing 1(1), 1–2 (2001)
Zadeh, L.A.: Toward Human Level Machine Intelligence – Is It Achievable? The Need for a Paradigm Shift. IEEE Computational Intelligence Magazine, 11–22 (August 2008)
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2012 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Seising, R., Sanz, V. (2012). From Hard Science and Computing to Soft Science and Computing – An Introductory Survey. In: Seising, R., Sanz González, V. (eds) Soft Computing in Humanities and Social Sciences. Studies in Fuzziness and Soft Computing, vol 273. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-24672-2_1
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-24672-2_1
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-642-24671-5
Online ISBN: 978-3-642-24672-2
eBook Packages: EngineeringEngineering (R0)