Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Evaluation of X-ray visualization techniques for vertical depth judgments in underground exploration

  • Original Article
  • Published:
The Visual Computer Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This paper investigates depth judgment-related performances of X-ray visualization techniques for rendering fully occluded geometries in augmented reality. The techniques we selected for this evaluation are careless overlay (CO), edge overlay (EO), excavation box (EB) and a cross-sectional visualization technique (CS). We have designed and conducted a comprehensive user study with 16 participants to examine and analyze the effects related to visualization techniques, having additional virtual objects and the scale of the vertical depths. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first user study on judged vertical depth distances that these techniques were compared against each other. We report our findings using four dependent variables: accuracy, signed error, absolute error and response time to shed some light into real-world performances and also to reveal estimation tendencies of each technique. Our findings suggest similar and better performance for EB, CS compared to CO and EO. We also observed significantly better results for EB and CS techniques when judging Top and Bottom distances compared to Middle distances. Derived from our findings, we proposed a new visualization technique for underground investigation with multiple views. The multi-view technique is our own implementation inspired by magic lens and cross-sectional visualizations with correlating displays.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Avery, B., Sandor, C., Thomas, B.H.: Improving spatial perception for augmented reality X-ray vision. In: Virtual Reality Conference, 2009. VR 2009. IEEE, pp. 79–82 (2009)

  2. Bane, R., Höllerer, T.: Interactive tools for virtual X-ray vision in mobile augmented reality. In: Mixed and Augmented Reality, 2004. ISMAR 2004. Third IEEE and ACM International Symposium on IEEE, pp. 231–239 (2004)

  3. Behzadan, A.H., Kamat, V.R.: Visualization of construction graphics in outdoor augmented reality. In: Proceedings of the 37th Conference on Winter Simulation, pp. 1914–1920. Winter Simulation Conference (2005)

  4. Bier, E.A., Stone, M.C., Pier, K., Buxton, W., DeRose, T.D.: Toolglass and magic lenses: the see-through interface. In: Proceedings of the 20th Annual Conference on Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques, pp. 73–80. ACM (1993)

  5. Boubaki, N., Saintenoy, A., Tucholka, P.: Gpr profiling and electrical resistivity tomography for buried cavity detection: a test site at the abbaye de l’ouye (france). In: Advanced Ground Penetrating Radar (IWAGPR), 2011 6th International Workshop on IEEE, pp. 1–5 (2011)

  6. Coffin, C., Hollerer, T.: Interactive perspective cut-away views for general 3d scenes. In: 3D User Interfaces, 2006. 3DUI 2006. IEEE Symposium on IEEE, pp. 25–28 (2006)

  7. Dey, A., Cunningham, A., Sandor, C.: Evaluating depth perception of photorealistic mixed reality visualizations for occluded objects in outdoor environments. In: Proceedings of the 17th ACM Symposium on Virtual Reality Software and Technology, pp. 211–218. ACM (2010)

  8. Dey, A., Jarvis, G., Sandor, C., Reitmayr, G.: Tablet versus phone: depth perception in handheld augmented reality. In: Mixed and Augmented Reality (ISMAR), 2012 IEEE International Symposium on IEEE, pp. 187–196 (2012)

  9. Dey, A., Sandor, C.: Lessons learned: evaluating visualizations for occluded objects in handheld augmented reality. Int. J. Hum. Comput. Stud. 72(10), 704–716 (2014)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Diepstraten, J., Weiskopf, D., Ertl, T.: Interactive cutaway illustrations. Comput. Graph. Forum. 22, 523–532 (2013). doi:10.1111/1467-8659.t01-3-00700

  11. Elmqvist, N., Tsigas, P.: A taxonomy of 3d occlusion management for visualization. Vis. Comput. Graph. IEEE Trans. 14(5), 1095–1109 (2008)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Goldstein, E.B.: Sensation and Perception. Cengage Learning, Delhi (2013)

    Google Scholar 

  13. Jansen, Y., Hornbæk, K.: A Psychophysical Investigation of Size as a Physical Variable. In: IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics, vol. 22, pp. 479–488 (2016). doi:10.1109/TVCG.2015.2467951

  14. Jones, J.A., Swan II, J.E., Singh, G., Kolstad, E., Ellis, S.R.: The effects of virtual reality, augmented reality, and motion parallax on egocentric depth perception. In: Proceedings of the 5th Symposium on Applied Perception in Graphics and Visualization, pp. 9–14. ACM (2008)

  15. Kalkofen, D., Tatzgern, M., Schmalstieg, D.: Explosion diagrams in augmented reality. In: Virtual Reality Conference, 2009. VR 2009, pp. 71–78. IEEE (2009)

  16. King, G.R., Piekarski, W., Thomas, B.H.: Arvino-outdoor augmented reality visualisation of viticulture gis data. In: Mixed and Augmented Reality, 2005. Proceedings. Fourth IEEE and ACM International Symposium on IEEE, pp. 52–55 (2005)

  17. Kruger, J., Schneider, J., Westermann, R.: Clearview: an interactive context preserving hotspot visualization technique. Vis. Comput. Graph. IEEE Trans. 12(5), 941–948 (2006)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Kruijff, E., Swan, J., Feiner, S.: Perceptual issues in augmented reality revisited. In: Mixed and Augmented Reality (ISMAR), 2010 9th IEEE International Symposium on IEEE, pp. 3–12 (2010)

  19. Landy, M.S., Maloney, L.T., Johnston, E.B., Young, M.: Measurement and modeling of depth cue combination: in defense of weak fusion. Vis. Res. 35(3), 389–412 (1995)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Lappin, J.S., Shelton, A.L., Rieser, J.J.: Environmental context influences visually perceived distance. Percept. Psychophys. 68(4), 571–581 (2006)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Li, W., Ritter, L., Agrawala, M., Curless, B., Salesin, D.: Interactive cutaway illustrations of complex 3d models. ACM Trans. Graph. 26(3), 31 (2007)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  22. Livingston, M.A., Ai, Z., Swan, J.E., Smallman, H.S.: Indoor versus outdoor depth perception for mobile augmented reality. In: Virtual Reality Conference, 2009. VR 2009. IEEE, pp. 55–62. IEEE (2009)

  23. Livingston, M.A., Dey, A., Sandor, C., Thomas, B.H.: Pursuit of “X-Ray Vision” for Augmented Reality. Springer, Berlin (2013)

    Book  Google Scholar 

  24. Livingston, M.A., Swan II, J.E., Gabbard, J.L., Höllerer, T.H., Hix, D., Julier, S.J., Baillot, Y., Brown, D.: Resolving multiple occluded layers in augmented reality. In: Proceedings of the 2nd IEEE/ACM International Symposium on Mixed and Augmented Reality, pp. 56. IEEE Computer Society (2003)

  25. Lo Monte, L., Erricolo, D., Picco, V., Soldovieri, F., Wicks, M.C.: Distributed rf tomography for tunnel detection: suitable inversion schemes. In: Aerospace and Electronics Conference (NAECON), Proceedings of the IEEE 2009 National, pp. 182–189. IEEE (2009)

  26. Lo Monte, L., Erricolo, D., Soldovieri, F., Wicks, M.C.: Radio frequency tomography for tunnel detection. Geosci. Remote Sens. IEEE Trans. 48(3), 1128–1137 (2010)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Looser, J., Billinghurst, M., Cockburn, A.: Through the looking glass: the use of lenses as an interface tool for augmented reality interfaces. In: Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Computer, pp. 204–211. ACM (2004)

  28. Mendez, E., Schmalstieg, D.: Importance masks for revealing occluded objects in augmented reality. In: Proceedings of the 16th ACM Symposium on Virtual Reality Software and Technology, pp. 247–248. ACM (2009)

  29. Roberts, J.C.: On encouraging multiple views for visualization. In: Information Visualization, 1998. Proceedings. 1998 IEEE Conference on IEEE, pp. 8–14. IEEE (1998)

  30. Schall, G., Mendez, E., Kruijff, E., Veas, E., Junghanns, S., Reitinger, B., Schmalstieg, D.: Handheld augmented reality for underground infrastructure visualization. Personal Ubiquitous Comput. 13(4), 281–291 (2009)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  31. Schall, G., Schmalstieg, D., Junghanns, S.: Vidente-3d visualization of underground infrastructure using handheld augmented reality. In: Geohydroinformatics-Integrating GIS and Water Engineering, vol. 1, pp. 1–17. CRC Press, Boca Raton (2010)

  32. Simi, A., Bracciali, S., Manacorda, G.: Hough transform based automatic pipe detection for array gpr: algorithm development and on-site tests. In: Radar Conference, 2008. RADAR’08. IEEE, pp. 1–6. IEEE (2008)

  33. Swan, J., Livingston, M.A., Smallman, H.S., Brown, D., Baillot, Y., Gabbard, J.L., Hix, D.: A perceptual matching technique for depth judgments in optical, see-through augmented reality. In: Virtual Reality Conference, 2006, pp. 19–26. IEEE (2006)

  34. Viega, J., Conway, M.J., Williams, G., Pausch, R.: 3d magic lenses. In: Proceedings of the 9th Annual ACM Symposium on User Interface Software and Technology, pp. 51–58. ACM (1996)

  35. Zollmann, S., Kalkofen, D., Mendez, E., Reitmayr, G.: Image-based ghostings for single layer occlusions in augmented reality. In: Mixed and Augmented Reality (ISMAR), 2010 9th IEEE International Symposium on IEEE, pp. 19–26. IEEE (2010)

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Sabanci University, Istanbul, Turkey

    Mustafa Tolga Eren & Selim Balcisoy

Authors
  1. Mustafa Tolga Eren
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Selim Balcisoy
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Mustafa Tolga Eren.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Eren, M.T., Balcisoy, S. Evaluation of X-ray visualization techniques for vertical depth judgments in underground exploration. Vis Comput 34, 405–416 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00371-016-1346-5

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00371-016-1346-5

Keywords

Search

Navigation