Abstract
Graph autoencoder can map graph data into a low-dimensional space. It is a powerful graph embedding method applied in graph analytics to lower the computational cost. Researchers have developed different graph autoencoders for addressing different needs. This paper proposes a strategy based on noise injection for graph autoencoder training. This is a general training strategy that can flexibly fit most existing training algorithms. The experimental results verify this general strategy can significantly reduce overfitting and identify the noise rate setting for consistent training performance improvement.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Wang Y, Xu B, Kwak M, Zeng X (2020) A simple training strategy for graph autoencoder. In: Proceedings of the international conference on machine learning and computing (ICMLC), pp 341–345. https://doi.org/10.1145/3383972.3383985
Tahmasebi H, Ravanmehr R, Mohamadrezaei R (2020) Social movie recommender system based on deep autoencoder network using Twitter data. Neural Comput Appl. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00521-020-05085-1
Cai H, Zheng VW, Chang KCC (2018) A comprehensive survey of graph embedding: Problems, techniques, and applications. IEEE Trans Knowl Data Eng 30:1616–1637. https://doi.org/10.1109/TKDE.2018.2807452
Li B, Pi D (2020) Network representation learning: a systematic literature review. Neural Comput Appl. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00521-020-04908-5
Pan S, Hu R, Fung SF et al (2020) Learning graph embedding with adversarial training methods. IEEE Trans Cybern 50:2475–2487. https://doi.org/10.1109/TCYB.2019.2932096
Pan S, Hu R, Long G, et al (2018) Adversarially regularized graph autoencoder for graph embedding. In: Proceedings of 27th international joint conference artificial intelligence, pp 2609–2615. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1317-08.2008
Zhang D, Yin J, Zhu X, Zhang C (2018) Network Representation Learning: A Survey. IEEE Trans Big Data. https://doi.org/10.1109/tbdata.2018.2850013
Kipf TN, Welling M (2016) Variational graph auto-encoders. In: NIPS workshop on bayesian deep learning
Wang D, Cui P, Zhu W (2016) Structural deep network embedding. In: Proceedings of the ACM SIGKDD international conference on knowledge discovery and data mining, pp 1225–1234
Tu K, Cui P, Wang X, et al (2018) Deep recursive network embedding with regular equivalence. In: Proceedings of ACM SIGKDD international conference knowledge discovery data min, pp 2357–2366. https://doi.org/10.1145/3219819.3220068
Samanta B, DE A, Jana G, et al (2019) NeVAE: A deep generative model for molecular graphs. In: Proceedings of the AAAI conference on artificial intelligence. pp 1110–1117
Grover A, Zweig A, Ermon S (2019) Graphite: Iterative generative modeling of graphs. In: Proceedings of machine learning research. pp 2434--2444
Cao S, Lu W, Xu Q (2016) Deep neural networks for learning graph representations. In: Proceedings of 30th AAAI conference on artificial intelligence, pp 1145–1152
Yu W, Zheng C, Cheng W, et al (2018) Learning deep network representations with adversarially. In: Proceedings of the international conference on knowledge discovery and data mining, pp 2663–2671
Goodfellow I, Pouget-Abadie J, Mirza M et al (2014) Generative adversarial nets. Adv Neural Inf Process Syst 27:2672–2680
Elman JL, Zipser D (1988) Learning the hidden structure of speech. J Acoust Soc Am 83:1615–1626. https://doi.org/10.1121/1.395916
Sietsma J, Dow RJF (1991) Creating artificial neural networks that generalize. Neural Netw 4:67–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/0893-6080(91)90033-2
Holmstrom L, Koistinen P (1992) Using additive noise in back propagation training. IEEE Trans Neural Netw 3:24–38. https://doi.org/10.1109/72.105415
Skurichina M, Raudys Š, Duin RPW (2000) K-nearest neighbors directed noise injection in multilayer perceptron training. IEEE Trans Neural Netw 11:504–511. https://doi.org/10.1109/72.839019
Brown WM, Gedeon TD, Groves DI (2003) Use of noise to augment training data: a neural network method of mineral-potential mapping in regions of limited known deposit examples. Nat Resour Res 12:141–152. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024218913435
Matsuoka K (1992) Noise injection into inputs in back-propagation learning. IEEE Trans Syst Man Cybern 22:436–440. https://doi.org/10.1109/21.370200
Reed R, Marks RJ, Oh S (1995) Similarities of error regularization, sigmoid gain scaling, target smoothing, and training with jitter. IEEE Trans Neural Netw 6:529–538. https://doi.org/10.1109/72.377960
Bishop CM (1995) Training with noise is equivalent to Tikhonov regularization. Neural Comput 7:108–116. https://doi.org/10.1162/neco.1995.7.1.108
Grandvalet Y, Canu S, Boucheron S (1997) Noise injection: theoretical prospects. Neural Comput 9:1093–1108. https://doi.org/10.1162/neco.1997.9.5.1093
An G (1996) The Effects of adding noise during backpropagation training on a generalization performance. Neural Comput 8:643–674. https://doi.org/10.1162/neco.1996.8.3.643
Piotrowski AP, Napiorkowski JJ (2013) A comparison of methods to avoid overfitting in neural networks training in the case of catchment runoff modelling. J Hydrol 476:97–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2012.10.019
Wright WA (1999) Bayesian approach to neural-network modeling with input uncertainty. IEEE Trans Neural Netw 10:1261–1270. https://doi.org/10.1109/72.809073
Wright WA, Ramage G, Cornford D, Nabney IT (2000) Neural network modelling with input uncertainty: theory and application. J VLSI Signal Process Syst Signal Image Video Technol 26:169–188. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1008111920791
Zhang S, Tong H, Xu J, Maciejewski R (2019) Graph convolutional networks: a comprehensive review. Comput Soc Netw 6:1–23. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40649-019-0069-y
McDowell LK, Gupta KM, Aha DW (2009) Cautious collective classification. J Mach Learn Res 10:2777–2836
Giles CL, Bollacker KD, Lawrence S (1998) CiteSeer: an automatic citation indexing system. In: Proceedings of ACM international conference digital library, pp 89–98
Kingma DP, Ba JL (2015) Adam: a method for stochastic optimization. In: Proceedings of the 3rd international conference on learning representations
Fawcett T (2006) An introduction to ROC analysis. Pattern Recognit Lett 27:861–874. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.patrec.2005.10.010
McClish DK (1989) Analyzing a portion of the ROC curve. Med Decis Mak 9:190–195. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272989X8900900307
Wikipedia entry for the Receiver operating characteristic. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Receiver_operating_characteristic. Accessed 9 Jan 2019
Acknowledgements
This work was partially supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant Number 1813252.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
All authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
A preliminary version of this work appeared in the proceedings of the international conference on machine learning and computing (ICMLC 2020) [1].
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Wang, Y., Xu, B., Kwak, M. et al. A noise injection strategy for graph autoencoder training. Neural Comput & Applic 33, 4807–4814 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00521-020-05283-x
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00521-020-05283-x