Abstract
In comparison to 2D maps, 3D mobile maps involve volumetric instead of flat representation of space, realistic instead of symbolic representation of objects, more variable views that are directional and bound to a first-person perspective, more degrees of freedom in movement, and dynamically changing object details. We conducted a field experiment to understand the influence of these qualities on a mobile spatial task where buildings shown on the map were to be localized in the real world. The representational differences were reflected in how often users interact with the physical environment and in when they are more likely to physically turn and move the device, instead of using virtual commands. 2D maps direct users into using reliable and ubiquitous environmental cues like street names and crossings, and 2D better affords the use of pre-knowledge and bodily action to reduce cognitive workload. Both acclaimed virtues of 3D mobile maps—rapid identification of objects and ego-centric alignment—worked poorly due reasons we discuss. However, with practice, some 3D users learned to shift to 2D-like strategies and could thereby improve performance. We conclude with a discussion of how representational differences in mobile maps affect strategies of embodied interaction.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Aretz AJ, Wickens CD (1992) The mental rotation of map displays. Hum Perf 5(4):303–328
Aslan I, Schwalm M, Baus J, Krüger A, Schwartz T (2006) Acquisition of spatial knowledge in location aware mobile pedestrian navigation systems. In: Proc. MobileHCI 2006, ACM Press, New York, pp. 105–108
Berch DB, Krikorian R, Huha EM (1998) The Corsi block-tapping task: methodological and theoretical considerations. Brain Cogn 38(3):317–338
Benson AJ, Gedye JL (1963) Logical process in the resolution of orientation conflict. RAF Institute of Aviation Medicine Report 259, Ministry of Defence
Berg Insight AB (2007) Summary of a market report “Mobile maps and navigation”, released in September 2007
Bessa M, Coelho A, Chalmers A (2005) Alternate feature location for rapid navigation using a 3D map on a mobile device. In: Proc. MUM 2005, ACM Press, New York, pp 5–9
Bluestein N, Acredolo L (1979) Developmental changes in map-reading skills. Child Dev 50(3):691–697
Burigat S, Chittaro, L (2004) Location-aware visualization of a 3D world to select tourist information on a mobile device. In: Proc. MobileHCI 2004, ACM Press, New York
Chittaro L, Burigat S (2004) Location-aware visualization of a 3D-world to select tourist information on a mobile device. In: Proc. MobileHCI 2004, ACM Press, New York
Crampton J (1992) A cognitive analysis of wayfinding expertise. Cartographica 29(3):46–65
Darken RP (1996) Wayfinding in large-scale virtual worlds. Dissertation, The George Washington University
Fröhlich P, Simon R, Baillie L, Roberts J, Murray-Smith R (2007) Mobile spatial interaction. In: Ext. Abst. CHI 2007, ACM Press, New York
Garsoffky B, Schwan S, Hesse FW (2002) Viewpoint dependency in the recognition of dynamic scenes. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 28(6):1035–1050
Golledge RG (1999) Human wayfinding and cognitive maps. In: Golledge RG (ed) Wayfinding behavior: cognitive mapping and other spatial processes. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, pp 5–45
Hanson A, Wernert E (1997) Constrained 3D navigation with 2D controllers. IEEE Visualization: 175–182
Kirsh D, Maglio P (1994) On distinguishing epistemic from pragmatic action. Cogn Sci 18:513–549
Kiss S, Nijholt A (2003) Viewpoint adaptation during navigation based on stimuli from the virtual environment. In: Proc. Web3D 2003, ACM Press, New York, pp 19–26
Kray C, Elting C, Laakso K, Coors V (2003) Presenting route instructions on mobile devices. In: Proc. IUI 2003, ACM Press, New York, pp 117–124
Levine M (1982) You-are-here maps: psychological considerations. Environ Behav 14(2):221–237
Levine M, Marchon I, Hanley GL (1984) The placement and misplacement of you-are-here maps. Environ Behav 16(2):139–157
Liben LS, Downs RM (1993) Understanding person-space-map relations: cartographic and developmental perspectives. Dev Psychol 29(4):739–752
Lobben AK (2004) Tasks strategies and cognitive processes associated with navigational map reading: a review perspective. Prof Geogr 56(2):270–281
Miettinen M, Oulasvirta A (2007) Predicting time-sharing in mobile interaction. User Model User-Adapt Interact 17(5):475–510
Mou W, McNamara TP (2002) Intrinsic frames of reference in spatial memory. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 28:162–170
Nothegger C, Winter S, Raubal M (2004) Selection of salient features for route directions. Spat Cogn Comput 4(2):113–136
Nurminen A (2006) m-LOMA: a mobile 3D city map. In: Proc. WEB3D 2006, ACM Press, New York, pp 7–18
Nurminen A, Oulasvirta A (2008) Designing interactions for navigation in 3D mobile maps. To appear in L Meng, A Zipf, S Winter (eds.) Map-based mobile services: interactivity and usability, Springer
Ottosson T (1987) Map-reading and wayfinding. Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis, Göteborg
Oulasvirta A, Nurminen A, Nivala AM (2007) Interacting with 3D and 2D mobile maps: an exploratory study. HIIT Technical Report 2007–1
Oulasvirta A (2008) Field experiments in HCI: promises and challenges. To appear in P Saariluoma, C Roast, HK Punamäki (eds.) Future Interaction Design: Part 2, Springer
Parush A, Berman D (2004) Navigation and orientation in 3D user interfaces: the impact of navigation aids and landmarks. Int J Hum Comput Stud 61:375–395
Rakkolainen I, Vainio T (2001) A 3D city info for mobile users. Comput Graph 25(4):619–625
Rohs M, Oulasvirta A (2008) Target acquisition with camera phones when used as magic lenses. To appear in Proc. CHI 2008, ACM Press, New York
Ruddle RA, Payne SJ, Jones DM (1997) Navigating buildings in “desk-top” virtual environments: experimental investigations using extended navigational experience. J Exp Psychol Appl 3(2):143–159
Seager W, Fraser DS (2007) Comparing physical automatic and manual map rotation for pedestrian navigation. In: Proc. CHI 2007, ACM Press, New York, pp 767–775
Sholl MJ (1987) Cognitive maps as orienting schemata. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 13(4):615–628
Tan D, Robertson G, Czerwinski M (2001) Exploring 3D navigation: combining speed-coupled flying with orbiting. In: Proc. CHI 2001, ACM Press, New York, pp 418–425
Vainio T, Kotala O (2002) Developing 3D information systems for mobile users: some usability issues. In: Proc. NordiCHI 2002, ACM Press, New York
Waller D (2000) Individual differences in spatial learning from computer-simulated environments. J Exp Psychol Appl 6(4):307–321
Wang RF, Brockmole JR (2003) Human navigation in nested environments. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 29(3):398–404
Ware C, Osborne S (1990) Exploration and virtual camera control in virtual three dimensional environments. In: Proc. 1990 symposium on interactive 3D graphics, pp 175–193
Wraga M (2003) Thinking outside the body: an advantage for spatial updating during imagine versus physical self-rotation. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 29(5):993–1005
Zimmer H (2004) The construction of mental maps based on a fragmentary view of physical maps. J Educ Psychol 96(3):603–610
Acknowledgments
This work utilizes the results from the EU InterregIIIA project m-LOMA. The study was funded by the EU FP6 ICT projects ROBOSWARM (045255) for mobile graphical user interface development, IPCity (FP-2004-IST-4-27571), and Academy of Finland project ContextCues. We thank Vikram Batra, Tuomo Nyyssönen, Giulio Jacucci, Katherine Wallis, Esko Lehtonen, Peter Fröhlich, Nikolaj Tatti, Petteri Torvinen, Antti Salonen, Heikki Vuolteenaho, Sauli Tiitta, and Tommi Ilmonen for comments and help.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Electronic supplementary material
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material..
Supplementary video (MPG 27,998 kb)
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Oulasvirta, A., Estlander, S. & Nurminen, A. Embodied interaction with a 3D versus 2D mobile map. Pers Ubiquit Comput 13, 303–320 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00779-008-0209-0
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00779-008-0209-0