Abstract
This paper examines the potential of immersive virtual reality technology for design education. A quasi-experimental study has been conducted with 40 students of different expertise levels. The students analysed a design representation using one of the two visualisation technologies: immersive virtual reality (IVR) and non-immersive virtual reality (nIVR). The results show that the expertise in the used technology and the expertise in the design domain significantly affect design understanding. On the other hand, the effect of contextual expertise was not found significant. Spatial ability affected design understanding in nIVR but not in the IVR. Visualisation technology did not have an overall effect on understanding, but IVR helped students with lower expertise to understand specific aspects of a design better (e.g. rotation-based mechanisms). The study suggests that researchers and educators control the students’ expertise when assessing the effect of technology on design education. Overall, the results support the constructivist learning theory, as IVR can support context-dependent and context-independent understanding.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
Data are available upon request.
Code availability
Code for analysis is available upon request.
References
Alizadehsalehi S, Hadavi A, Huang JC (2021) Assessment of AEC Students’ performance using BIM-into-VR. Appl Sci 11(7):3225. https://doi.org/10.3390/app11073225
Allcoat D, von Mühlenen A (2018) Learning in virtual reality: effects on performance, emotion and engagement. Res Learn Technol. https://doi.org/10.25304/rlt.v26.2140
Banerjee P, Bochenek GM, Ragusa JM (2002) Analyzing the relationship of presence and immersive tendencies on the conceptual design review process. J Comput Inf Sci Eng 2(1):59. https://doi.org/10.1115/1.1486218
Becattini N, Škec S, Pavković N, Cascini G (2020) E-learning infrastructure prototype for geographically distributed project-based learning. Proc Des Soc: DESIGN Conference. 1:1667–1676. https://doi.org/10.1017/dsd.2020.282
Berg LP, Vance JM (2016) An industry case study: investigating early design decision making in virtual reality. J Comput Inf Sci Eng 17(1):011001. https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4034267
Berg LP, Vance JM (2017) Industry use of virtual reality in product design and manufacturing: a survey. Virtual Reality 21(1):1–17. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10055-016-0293-9
Berni A, Borgianni Y (2020) Applications of virtual reality in engineering and product design: why, what, how when and where. Electronics 9(7):1064. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics9071064
Blanca MJ, Alarcón R, Arnau J, Bono R, Bendayan R (2017) Non-normal data: IS ANOVA still a valid option? Psicothema 29(4):552–557. https://doi.org/10.7334/psicothema2016.383
Camburn B, Viswanathan V, Linsey J, Anderson D, Jensen D, Crawford R et al (2017) Design prototyping methods: state of the art in strategies, techniques, and guidelines. Des Sci 3:e13. https://doi.org/10.1017/dsj.2017.10
L de Casenave, JE Lugo. (2017). Design review using virtual reality enabled CAD. In: Volume 1: 37th computers and information in engineering conference (p V001T02A067). Cleveland: ASME. https://doi.org/10.1115/DETC2017-67878
S Ceylan. (2020). Using virtual reality to improve visual recognition skills of first year architecture students: a comparative study. In: Proceedings of the 12th international conference on computer supported education (pp 54–63). SCITEPRESS - Science and Technology Publications. https://doi.org/10.5220/0009346800540063
Coburn JQ, Freeman I, Salmon JL (2017) A review of the capabilities of current low-cost virtual reality technology and its potential to enhance the design process. J Comput Inf Sci Eng 17(3):031013. https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4036921
Concannon BJ, Esmail S, Roduta Roberts M (2019) Head-mounted display virtual reality in post-secondary education and Skill training. Frontiers in Education. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2019.00080
Cross N (2004) Expertise in design: an overview. Des Stud 25(5):427–441. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.destud.2004.06.002
Cross N (2006) Designerly ways of knowing. designerly ways of knowing. Springer-Verlag, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/1-84628-301-9
Cummings JJ, Bailenson JN (2016) How immersive is enough? a meta-analysis of the effect of immersive technology on user presence. Media Psychol 19(2):272–309. https://doi.org/10.1080/15213269.2015.1015740
D’Astous P, Détienne F, Visser W, Robillard PN (2004) Changing our view on design evaluation meetings methodology: a study of software technical review meetings. Des Stud 25(6):625–655. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.destud.2003.12.002
Dorta T, Kinayoglu G, Boudhraâ S (2016) A new representational ecosystem for design teaching in the studio. Des Stud 47:164–186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.destud.2016.09.003
Dym CL, Agogino AM, Eris O, Frey DD, Leifer LJ (2005) Engineering design thinking, teaching, and learning. J Eng Educat. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2168-9830.2005.tb00832.x
Eftekharifar S, Thaler A, Troje NF (2020) Contribution of motion parallax and stereopsis to the sense of presence in virtual Reality. J Percept Imag 3(2):20502–1. https://doi.org/10.2352/J.Percept.Imaging.2020.3.2.020502
Fogarty J, McCormick J, El-Tawil S (2018) Improving student understanding of complex spatial arrangements with virtual reality. J Prof Issues Eng Educ Pract 144(2):04017013. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)EI.1943-5541.0000349
Freeman IJ, Salmon JL, Coburn JQ (2018) A bi-directional interface for improved interaction with engineering models in virtual reality design reviews. Int J Interact Des Manuf 12(2):549–560. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12008-017-0413-0
Gero JS (ed) (2015) Studying visual and spatial reasoning for design creativity. Springer, Netherlands, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-9297-4
Gero JS, Kannengiesser U (2004) The situated function-behaviour-structure framework. Des Stud 25(4):373–391. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.destud.2003.10.010
Glass GV, Peckham PD, Sanders JR (1972) Consequences of failure to meet assumptions underlying the fixed effects analyses of variance and covariance. Rev Educ Res 42(3):237–288. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543042003237
RL Goldstone, A Kersten, PF Carvalho (2018) Categorization and Concepts. In: Stevens’ Handbook of experimental psychology and cognitive neuroscience (pp 1–43). Hoboken, NJ, USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119170174.epcn308
LF Gül, A Williams, N Gu. (2012). constructivist learning theory in virtual design studios. In Computational design methods and technologies (pp. 139–162). IGI Global. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-61350-180-1.ch009
Hamade RF, Artail HA, Jaber MY (2011) A study of the impact of the willingness-to-learn of CAD novice users on their competence development. Comput Ind Eng 61(3):709–720. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cie.2011.04.024
Hamilton D, McKechnie J, Edgerton E, Wilson C (2021) Immersive virtual reality as a pedagogical tool in education: a systematic literature review of quantitative learning outcomes and experimental design. J Comput Educ 8(1):1–32. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40692-020-00169-2
Hamurcu A, Timur Ş, Rızvanoğlu K (2020) An overview of virtual reality within industrial design education. J Eng, Des Technol 18(6):1889–1905. https://doi.org/10.1108/JEDT-02-2020-0048
A Hamurcu. (2018). User insights about using immersive virtual reality in industrial design studio courses. In: ISMSIT 2018 - 2nd international symposium on multidisciplinary studies and innovative technologies, proceedings. https://doi.org/10.1109/ISMSIT.2018.8567058
Hannah R, Joshi S, Summers JD (2012) A user study of interpretability of engineering design representations. J Eng Des 23(6):443–468. https://doi.org/10.1080/09544828.2011.615302
Harasim L (2017) Learning theory and online technologies. Routledge, UK. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315716831
L Harasim (2017a) Constructivist learning theory. In Learning theory and online technologies, Routledge UK https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315716831-5
GE Hein (1991). Constructivist learning theory | Exploratorium. Institute for Inquiry.
Hernández-Chávez M, Cortés-Caballero JM, Pérez-Martínez ÁA, Hernández-Quintanar LF, Roa-Tort K, Rivera-Fernández JD, Fabila-Bustos DA (2021) Development of virtual reality automotive lab for training in engineering students. Sustainability 13(17):9776. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13179776
N Horvat, S Škec, T Martinec, F Lukačević, MM Perišić (2019) Comparing virtual reality and desktop interface for reviewing 3D CAD models. In: Proceedings of the design society: international conference on engineering design, 1(1): 1923–1932, https://doi.org/10.1017/dsi.2019.198
N Horvat, S Škec, T Martinec, F Lukačević, MM Perišić (2020). Identifying the effect of reviewers’ expertise on design review using virtual reality and desktop interface. In: Proceedings of the design society: design conference, Cambridge University Press (pp 187–196). https://doi.org/10.1017/dsd.2020.304
N Horvat, N Becattini, S Škec. (2021). Use of information and communication technology tools in distributed product design student teams. In: Proceedings of international conference on engineering design ICED21. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/pds.2021.594
X Hu, GV Georgiev, H Casakin (2020) Mitigating design fixation with evolving extended reality technology: an emerging opportunity In: Proceedings of the design society: DESIGN Conference, 1: 1305–1314, https://doi.org/10.1017/dsd.2020.91
Hu W-L, Reid T (2018) The effects of designers’ contextual experience on the ideation process and design outcomes. J Mech Des 140(10):101101. https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4040625
Hubka V, Eder WE (1988) Theory of technical systems: a total concept theory for engineering design. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-52121-8
Jensen L, Konradsen F (2018) A review of the use of virtual reality head-mounted displays in education and training. Educ Inf Technol 23(4):1515–1529. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-017-9676-0
Kandi VR, Castronovo F, Brittle P, Mastrolembo Ventura S, Nikolic D (2020) Assessing the impact of a construction virtual reality game on design review skills of construction students. J Archit Eng 26(4):04020035. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)AE.1943-5568.0000434
Kinsella EA (2006) Constructivist underpinnings in Donald Schön’s theory of reflective practice: echoes of Nelson Goodman. Reflective Pract 7(3):277–286. https://doi.org/10.1080/14623940600837319
Langsrud Ø (2003) ANOVA for unbalanced data: use type II instead of type III sums of squares. Stat Comput 13(2):163–167. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023260610025
Lawson B, Dorst K (2009) Design expertise, 1st edn. Taylor & Francis, UK
Lee JH, Yang E, Sun ZY (2021) Using an immersive virtual reality design tool to support cognitive action and creativity: educational insights from fashion designers. Des J 24(4):503–524. https://doi.org/10.1080/14606925.2021.1912902
Liao K-H (2017) The abilities of understanding spatial relations, spatial orientation, and spatial visualization affect 3D product design performance: using carton box design as an example. Int J Technol Des Educ 27(1):131–147. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10798-015-9330-3
Liu Y, Messner JI, Leicht RM (2018) A process model for usability and maintainability design reviews. Archit Eng Des Manag 14(6):457–469. https://doi.org/10.1080/17452007.2018.1512042
Lukačević F, Škec S, Perišić MM, Horvat N, Štorga M (2020a) Spatial perception of 3D CAD model dimensions and affordances in virtual environments. IEEE Access 8:174587–174604. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2020.3025634
Lukačević F, Škec S, Törlind P, Štorga M (2020b) Identifying subassemblies and understanding their functions during a design review in immersive and non-immersive virtual environments. Front Eng Manag. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42524-020-0099-z
MacCallum RC, Zhang S, Preacher KJ, Rucker DD (2002) On the practice of dichotomization of quantitative variables. Psychol Methods 7(1):19–40. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.7.1.19
Mahoney MJ (2004) What is constructivism and why is it growing? Contemp Psychol 49(3):360–363. https://doi.org/10.1037/004362
Mastrolembo Ventura S, Castronovo F, Ciribini ALC (2020) A design review session protocol for the implementation of immersive virtual reality in usability-focused analysis. J Inf Technol Const 25:233–253. https://doi.org/10.36680/j.itcon.2020.014
BJ Mohler, M Luca, Di HH, Bülthoff (2013) Multisensory contributions to spatial perception. In: Handbook of Spatial Cognition, https://doi.org/10.1037/13936-005
Morkos B, Summers JD (2013) A study of designer familiarity with product and user during requirement elicitation. Int J Comput Aided Eng Technol 5(2/3):139. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJCAET.2013.052934
Mosely G, Wright N, Wrigley C (2018) Facilitating design thinking: a comparison of design expertise. Think Skills Creat 27:177–189. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2018.02.004
Neroni MA, Oti A, Crilly N (2021) Virtual reality design-build-test games with physics simulation: opportunities for researching design cognition. Int J D Creat Innov 9(3):139–173. https://doi.org/10.1080/21650349.2021.1929500
Newcombe NS, Shipley TF (2015) Thinking about spatial thinking: new typology, new assessments. In: Gero JS (ed) Studying visual and spatial reasoning for design creativity. Springer, pp 179–192
NS Newcombe (2018) Three kinds of spatial cognition In: Stevens’ handbook of experimental psychology and cognitive neuroscience https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119170174.epcn315
Nisha B (2019) The pedagogic value of learning design with virtual reality. Educ Psychol 39(10):1233–1254. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2019.1661356
Obeid S, Demirkan H (2020) The influence of virtual reality on design process creativity in basic design studios. Interact Learn Environ. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2020.1858116
Oh Y, Ishizaki S, Gross MD, Yi-Luen Do E (2013) A theoretical framework of design critiquing in architecture studios. Des Stud 34(3):302–325. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.destud.2012.08.004
Ostrander JK, Tucker CS, Simpson TW, Meisel NA (2020) Evaluating the use of virtual reality to teach introductory concepts of additive manufacturing. J Mech Des. https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4044006
Özgen DS, Afacan Y, Sürer E (2021) Usability of virtual reality for basic design education: a comparative study with paper-based design. Int J Technol Des Educ 31(2):357–377. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10798-019-09554-0
Paes D, Arantes E, Irizarry J (2017) Immersive environment for improving the understanding of architectural 3D models: comparing user spatial perception between immersive and traditional virtual reality systems. Autom Constr 84(October):292–303. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2017.09.016
Paes D, Irizarry J, Pujoni D (2021) An evidence of cognitive benefits from immersive design review: comparing three-dimensional perception and presence between immersive and non-immersive virtual environments. Autom Constr 130:103849. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2021.103849
Peters M, Laeng B, Latham K, Jackson M, Zaiyouna R, Richardson C (1995) A redrawn vandenberg and Kuse mental rotations test - different versions and factors that affect performance. Brain Cogn 28(1):39–58. https://doi.org/10.1006/brcg.1995.1032
Psenka CE, Kim K-Y, Okudan Kremer GE, Haapala KR, Jackson KL (2017) Translating constructionist learning to engineering design education. J Integr Des Process Sci 21(2):3–20. https://doi.org/10.3233/jid-2017-0004
Radianti J, Majchrzak TA, Fromm J, Wohlgenannt I (2020) A systematic review of immersive virtual reality applications for higher education: Design elements, lessons learned, and research agenda. Comput Educ 147:103778. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103778
Robson C, McCartan K (2016) Real world research. Wiley
Safadel P, White D (2020) Effectiveness of computer-generated virtual reality (VR) in learning and teaching environments with spatial frameworks. Appl Sci 10(16):5438. https://doi.org/10.3390/app10165438
Satter K, Butler A (2015) Competitive usability analysis of immersive virtual environments in engineering design review. J Comput Inf Sci Eng 15(3):031001. https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4029750
Schön DA (1983) The reflective practitioner: how professional think in action, 1st edn. Basic Books, UK
Sopher H, Fisher Gewirtzman D, Kalay YE (2019) Going immersive in a community of learners? assessment of design processes in a multi-setting architecture studio. Br J Edu Technol 50(5):2109–2128. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12857
Starkey EM, McKay AS, Hunter ST, Miller SR (2018) Piecing together product dissection: how dissection conditions impact student conceptual understanding and cognitive load. J Mech Des. https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4039384
EM Starkey, C Spencer, K Lesniak, C Tucker, SR Miller. (2017). Do technological advancements lead to learning enhancements?: an exploration in virtual product dissection. In: Volume 3: 19th International conference on advanced vehicle technologies; 14th international conference on design education; 10th frontiers in biomedical devices. American society of mechanical engineers. https://doi.org/10.1115/DETC2017-68237
Sun R, Wu YJ, Cai Q (2019) The effect of a virtual reality learning environment on learners’ spatial ability. Virtual Reality 23(4):385–398. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10055-018-0355-2
HG Teklemariam, V Kakati, AK Das. (2014). Application of VR technology in design education. In: International conference on engineering and product design education. Twente, The Netherlands
Tempelman E, Pilot A (2011) Strengthening the link between theory and practice in teaching design engineering: an empirical study on a new approach. Int J Technol Des Educ 21(3):261–275. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10798-010-9118-4
Valkenburg R, Dorst K (1998) The reflective practice of design teams. Des Stud 19(3):249–271. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0142-694X(98)00011-8
Waks LJ (2001) Donald Schon’s philosophy of design and design education. Int J Technol Des Educ 11(1):37–51. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1011251801044
Waller, D., & Nadel, L. (2013). Handbook of spatial cognition. D. Waller & L. Nadel, Eds. Washington: American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/13936-000
Yilmaz S, Daly SR (2016) Feedback in concept development: comparing design disciplines. Des Stud 45:137–158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.destud.2015.12.008
Acknowledgements
This paper reports on work funded by the Croatian Science Foundation project IP-2018-01-7269: Team Adaptability for Innovation-Oriented Product Development—TAIDE (http://www.taide.org) and Erasmus+ project 2018-1-HR01-KA203-047486: ELPID – E-learning Platform for Innovative Product Development (http://www.elpid.org/). The authors would like to thank the students for the participation in the experiment.
Funding
Croatian Science Foundation project IP-2018–01-7269: Team Adaptability for Innovation-Oriented Product Development – TAIDE. Erasmus + project 2018–1-HR01-KA203-047486: ELPID – E-learning Platform for Innovative Product Development.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflicts of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Ethics approval
Ethical approval was obtained for the Croatian Science Foundation project IP-2018–01-7269.
Consent to participate
Signed consent was obtained from the participants of the study.
Consent for publication
Signed consent was obtained from the participants of the study.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Horvat, N., Martinec, T., Lukačević, F. et al. The potential of immersive virtual reality for representations in design education. Virtual Reality 26, 1227–1244 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10055-022-00630-w
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10055-022-00630-w