1 Introduction

The global tourism industry, including that of Tunisia, has historically faced significant challenges in attracting potential travelers to explore and experience its diverse offerings. In recent years, however, the role of technology in overcoming these challenges has undergone a transformative evolution. The rapid expansion of technology access has fundamentally altered the ways in which travelers plan, organize, and book their journeys. Simultaneously, the advent of social media and the sophisticated functionalities of Web 4.0 have empowered individuals to significantly influence the reputation of destinations through user-generated content, including public reviews and shared experiences. Despite these advancements, the intensifying competition among destinations has created a pressing need for more innovative and immersive strategies to captivate and engage potential tourists (Guttentag 2010; Hays et al. 2013; Loureiro et al. 2020; Lee 2022; Bretos et al. 2023; Hou 2024).

The COVID-19 pandemic significantly accelerated the adoption of technology in the tourism sector (Zhang et al. 2022). With global travel halted, the industry faced challenges in maintaining destination visibility and engagement. Travelers turned to virtual alternatives, highlighting the essential role of virtual experiences in sustaining tourism during crises and reinforcing the importance of technology for the industry's resilience and adaptability (Yang et al. 2021; Yang and Smith 2023). As digital platforms and mobile applications became central to travel planning, the pandemic spurred a digital transformation, enhancing convenience, safety, and personalization. In this context, Virtual Reality (VR) emerged as a critical tool, enabling users to explore destinations from home when physical travel was impossible. VR became a key marketing strategy for Destination Management Organizations (DMOs), offering immersive experiences through Head Mounted Displays (HMDs) to virtually showcase cultural and natural attractions. Industry leaders have recognized VR's potential, investing heavily in its development as a cornerstone of future digital engagement (Talwar et al. 2022; Hanh and Tuyen 2023; Calisto and Sarkar 2024).

Tunisia, renowned for its rich cultural heritage, stunning landscapes, and prominent seasonal seaside tourism, stands to greatly benefit from the integration of Virtual Reality (VR) into its destination marketing strategies. By leveraging VR, DMOs can offer immersive virtual experiences that highlight Tunisia's unique attractions—from historical landmarks to coastal beauty—enticing potential travelers to plan future visits. As a developing African country, Tunisia has much to gain from strategically incorporating VR into its tourism offerings.

A comprehensive understanding of tourists' intentions and acceptance of VR technology is crucial for enhancing visitor experiences, increasing engagement, and fostering sustainable growth in tourism (Qiu et al. 2021; Ye et al. 2022; Bilynets 2023). However, the intersection of VR adoption and cultural heritage preservation remains underexplored, particularly in developing tourism markets like Tunisia, where cultural heritage is a key attraction. Our study addresses this gap by building a theoretical framework that incorporates the factors that could influence tourists' decisions to adopt immersive VR experiences. This research highlights the psychological and behavioral factors influencing VR adoption, providing valuable insights to guide strategic decisions and ensure effective VR integration in tourism. Understanding these factors enables organizations to anticipate challenges and optimize VR deployment, enhancing the resilience and sustainability of the sector.

The current literature predominantly focuses on VR technology in developed markets, overlooking its application in emerging destinations with limited tourism diversification. No acceptance model specifically designed to comprehend the perspective of end-users and their intention to utilize VR in Tunisian context was identified in the existing research. Our research contributes to understanding how contextual variables in developing regions interact with technology acceptance, particularly in the context of culturally significant tourism. This study fills a critical gap by offering a nuanced exploration of VR’s role in cultural heritage tourism, where both behavioral intention and technology adoption have been largely under-theorized. By filling this research gap, it is possible to shed light on the acceptability and prospective success of VR applications in improving the visitor experience and promoting cultural engagement in Tunisian archaeological sites. Building on the exploration of virtual reality's potential in transforming the tourism experience, this study seeks to address a critical inquiry: What factors drive the success of virtual reality adoption in Tunisia's tourism sector? The aim of this research is to delve into the unique dynamics of the Tunisian tourism industry and examine how persuasive factors shape the intention to use virtual reality tools.

On a practical level, the study offers actionable strategies for tourism industry stakeholders, helping them leverage VR to enhance visitor engagement, improve marketing efforts, and promote sustainable cultural tourism. For Tunisia, the societal impact is profound: by harnessing VR, the country can preserve its cultural heritage while making it accessible to a global audience, thus fostering greater cultural appreciation and economic growth. Structurally, the research provides a robust framework that can be adapted by policymakers, industry leaders, and technology practitioners to drive the successful adoption of VR in other developing nations, ensuring that Tunisia's tourism sector remains competitive and resilient in an increasingly digital world.

In the subsequent section, we will investigate deeper into the notion of virtual reality, its components, and its potential to reshape the tourism industry in Tunisia while highlighting the theoretical framework of Technology acceptance considered in this study.

2 Literature review

2.1 Virtual reality's transformative role in tourism

The metaverse market has been experiencing a steady and exponential growth worldwide. In 2020, its value reached an impressive $478.7 billion, and projections indicated that by 2022, it’s soar to approximately $650 billion, further escalating to $783.3 billion by 2024. Moreover, experts anticipate that by 2030, the revenue generated by the metaverse market could surpass the remarkable milestone of $5 trillion. Additionally, the total value of the global mixed reality and virtual reality market, including augmented reality, amounted to $28 billion in 2021, and it is supposed to surpass $250 billion by 2028 (Statista Digital Economy Compass 2022).Footnote 1 These figures demonstrate the significant potential and impact of the metavers.Footnote 2 While uncertainties persist, it is evident that the metaverse holds enormous potential for reshaping various industries, in particular the tourism industry (Hou 2024). According to recent data from Statista (2023), the immersive technologies market is on track to reach an impressive $100 billion by 2026. This projection emphasizes the crucial role these technologies will play in driving societal advancements and shaping the future landscape of innovation (Bretos et al. 2023).

In VR research, the terms "Virtual Environments" and "Virtual Worlds" are often used to describe different facets of VR experiences (Yung and Catheryn 2017; Bilynets 2023). Guttentag (2010) defines Virtual Reality as an immersive experience where users become deeply engaged within a virtual environment, emphasizing the importance of presence and interaction. The term "virtual environment" is versatile, with definitions that vary across research contexts, from basic e-learning platforms (Bray 2002) to more immersive forms of VR like virtual worlds (Singh and Lee 2009; Beck et al. 2019; Singh et al. 2021; Bretos et al. 2023; Hou 2024). This variability underscores the adaptable and multifaceted nature of virtual environments within VR research. In contrast, "virtual worlds" refer to continuous, immersive environments that are accessible 24/7, allowing users to engage in real-time creation, play, and interaction through personalized 3D avatars (Penfold 2009, p. 140).

Building on the concept of VR as an interactive computer-generated tools, it enables users to immerse themselves in simulated experiences that span both real-world and imaginative scenarios (Bilynets 2023). VR refers specifically to the use of computer-generated 3D environments that users can navigate and interact with, creating a real-time simulation of their senses (Guttentag 2010; Beck et al. 2019). This distinguishes VR from augmented reality (AR), which enhances real-world images with computer-generated elements. Notably, some VR applications, such as virtual maps and panoramic tours, can be accessed via a monitor, mouse, or keyboard without the need for specialized devices (see Fig. 1 below).

Fig. 1
figure 1

Depiction of a virtual reality continuum (by Milgram et al. 1994, p. 283) University of Sousse, (Tunisia). It illustrates a Virtual Reality Continuum, adapted from the work of Milgram et al. (1994, p. 283), which delineates the progression from the physical world to immersive virtual environments. This continuum offers a visual representation of the spectrum of virtual experiences, highlighting the distinction between virtual reality, where users are fully immersed in a computer-generated environment, and augmented reality, which overlays digital content onto the physical world

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Indeed, VR is characterized by three essential elements that contribute to its immersive and interactive nature (Bretos et al. 2023; Hou 2024. Firstly, visualization allows users to have a 360-degree view of their virtual environment, typically facilitated by a head-mounted display. This enables users to investigate and interact with their surroundings as if they were physically present. Secondly, VR creates a sense of immersion by suspending the user's belief and providing a realistic representation of objects and environments. This heightened level of realism enhances the user's engagement and emotional connection with the virtual world. Finally, interactivity plays a crucial role in VR experiences, offering users a degree of control and agency within the virtual environment. This interactivity is accomplished by employing sensors and input devices like joysticks or keyboards, enabling users to navigate, manipulate objects, and engage in interactive activities. These three elements collectively contribute to the unique and captivating nature of VR, making it a powerful tool for enhancing experiences in various domains, including the field of tourism (Yung and Catheryn 2017; Beck et al. 2019; Hou 2024).

While VR has a history dating back to 1962, it has lately appeared as a revolutionary tool within the tourism sector (Zhang et al. 2022). The integration of VR technology in tourism offers new opportunities for immersive and engaging experiences, though further advancements are needed to stimulate all human senses fully (Oncioiu and Priescu 2022). The global virtual reality tourism market is expected to grow significantly, with a 33.0% compound annual growth rate (CAGR) projected from 2023 to 2030. Valued at $12.3 billion in 2023, the market could reach $26.0 billion by 2033. The Middle East and Africa region, holding over 4% of global VR tourism revenue, is anticipated to grow with a 32.2% CAGR due to its rich historical sites and natural wonders, offering numerous opportunities for immersive virtual exploration.

The digital revolution has significantly affected tourism behavior, resulting in the transformation of conventional tourism into digital and intelligent tourism (Pencarelli 2020; Ye et al. 2022; Bretos et al. 2023; Song and Lu 2024). Among the various technologies shaping the innovative tourism landscape, VR holds a prominent position (Beck et al. 2019; Fan et al. 2022; Wei et al. 2023). This tools, has occurred as a transformative technology in the aftermath of the pandemic and has been applied in various fields, including entertainment, tourism planning, marketing, heritage protection and policy-making (Qiu et al. 2021; Li et al. 2022; Song and Lu 2024). VR technology has the potential to tackle obstacles that impede the progress of tourism such as limited time, economic constraints, and safety concerns (Buhalis et al. 2019; Fan et al. 2022; Song and Lu 2024). Additionally, VR offers a cost-effective alternative to physically visiting destinations, making it accessible to a broader audience. Moreover, as security issues continue to affect some tourist destinations, virtual reality provides a safe and risk-free way to experience destination's offerings. Effectively, VR has revolutionized the tourism industry by offering immersive environments through head-mounted displays and CAVE systems that stimulate visual and auditory senses, with touch, taste, and smell still in early development (Iftikhar et al. 2022; Song and Lu 2024). It provides a compelling alternative to traditional travel, unlocking opportunities for virtual vacations and enabling users to explore destinations they may never visit physically (Mura et al. 2017; Loureiro et al. 2020; de Lurdes Calisto and Sarkar 2024).

Similarly, Virtual Reality (VR) offers immense potential for the preservation of cultural heritage (CH) sites, allowing tourists to experience these locations without causing physical harm. By providing immersive and interactive experiences, VR enables visitors to explore historical and archaeological sites, transcending physical limitations. Users can step into the past, interact with virtual artifacts, and visualize reconstructions of ancient landscapes, enhancing both the visitor experience and the appreciation of cultural heritage (Mascho and Singh 2014; Li 2021; Hou 2024). Additionally, VR overcomes logistical challenges such as limited access to fragile or restricted sites, offering new possibilities for education, storytelling, and preservation through virtual tours and simulations. By integrating VR, stakeholders can create engaging, informative, and sustainable experiences, improving the accessibility and relevance of CH tourism (Marto et al. 2023; Hien and Trang 2024).

Considering these developments, Tunisia’s tourism industry stands at a crucial crossroads, where technological advancements, particularly in VR, hold the potential to reshape its trajectory. As an African nation in the process of development, Tunisia relies heavily on tourism as a vital economic pillar. However, the sector is currently characterized by mass, seasonal tourism with limited diversification. This presents both a challenge and an opportunity: while Tunisia’s tourism economy has thrived on its appeal as a seasonal destination, this reliance on traditional, mass-market tourism leaves it vulnerable to fluctuations and lacks the variety needed to sustain long-term growth. By integrating VR into its tourism strategy, Tunisia can transcend physical and geographical limitations, showcasing its unique attractions in a way that resonates with a global audience. This technology offers the possibility to diversify Tunisia’s tourism offerings, making the experience accessible year-round and appealing to a broader range of interests. VR could significantly contribute to elevating Tunisia’s tourism profile beyond its traditional, seasonal appeal, thereby addressing the critical need for diversification within the sector.

While research has emphasized the positive effects of VR in the tourism industry, it is fundamental to assess user intentions and behaviors alongside the technological aspects in Tunisian Cultural Heritage (CH) sites. Some researchers have raised doubts about the quality and sensory experience of virtual tourism and questioned whether tourists would truly enjoy it (Marto et al. 2023). Other explorations are needed to understand the correlation involving technology and tourist behavior.

Our study addresses the gap in VR adoption literature related to the intersection of tourism and cultural heritage preservation. While VR’s transformative potential in tourism has been acknowledged, the theoretical understanding of how VR enhances the visitor experience and influences behavioral intention in cultural heritage contexts remains underexplored. Our research, therefore, contributes to building a theoretical framework for understanding VR adoption in a developing tourism market that is heavily reliant on cultural heritage as a key attraction, an area largely neglected in existing studies.

Moreover, the use of virtual reality tools in the Tunisian tourism industry remains largely unexplored, with no existing studies examining their implementation and impact. As researchers, we aim to bridge this critical gap through conducting an extensive investigation that delves into the intention to utilize VR and the acceptance of these tools in the Tunisian tourism context. Our research seeks to illuminate the perceived success and effectiveness of VR in enhancing the visitor experience at various tourist attractions, cultural heritage sites, and hospitality establishments across Tunisia. By investigating the acceptance and intentions towards VR technology, we can provide valuable insights and recommendations to tourism stakeholders regarding the integration of VR tools. This study purposes to pave the way for embracing virtual reality in the Tunisian tourism industry, offering a deeper understanding of its potential benefits, challenges, and the factors influencing its successful implementation.

2.2 Theoretical framework

Historically, the realm of virtual tourism research has primarily centered around practical applications and prototype development, often neglecting the foundation of theoretical frameworks, concepts, and underlying principles. In the context of virtual tourism behavior, the decision-making process leading up to the actual experience is affected by several factors of use (Marto et al. 2023). It is crucial to understand that users adopt technologies in diverse manners, prompting scholars to put forth numerous theories and models aimed at exploring the acceptance of these technologies. While the existing body of research in this area remains limited, it holds significant importance in shaping our understanding of virtual reality tools acceptance and usage in tourism context.

A key aspect of assessing the success of VR is adopting a precise positioning that places the end user at the center of the assessment strategy. The acceptance of Information Technology (IT) remains a significant concern for Chief Information Officers (CIOs) responsible for implementing new technologies, as well as for Information Systems (IS) researchers studying IT impact and acceptance determinants (Venkatesh et al. 2012). The analysis of IT user acceptance is considered among the greatest cutting-edge topics of research in contemporary IS literature. It is widely recognized that systems cannot effectively progress organizational performance if end users do not accept them.

In the current body of literature, numerous models and frameworks have been devised to assess the acceptance of contemporary technology by users (Table 1). Several theories, for instance the Theory of Reasoned Action, the Theory of Planned Behavior, the Technology Acceptance Model, the Diffusion of Innovations Theory, the combined framework of Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) and Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), the Motivational Model, the model of PC utilization, and the Social Cognitive Theory, have been formulated and utilized to elucidate the intention to adopt and the actual usage of novel technologies. Table 1 exhibits a comprehensive overview of various models and theories pertaining to technology acceptance, highlighting the manner in which others have expanded upon certain theories.

Table 1 Technology acceptance theories and models overview
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These theories serve as the foundation for models that quantify technology acceptance and related phenomena. Academics seek to establish cause-and-effect relationships that predict the level of acceptance for specific technologies, enabling them to identify reasons for rejection and predict usage (Algahtani et al. 2021; Du and Liang 2024). Among the vast literature on technology acceptance, the Unified Theory of Technology Acceptance and Use (UTAUT2) stands out as the one of the most widely utilized in IS research. UTAUT2 integrates the findings of eight theories and models, synthesizing existing empirical studies to establish an accurate background of independent constructs derived from these theories. This framework seeks to elucidate and forecast, intention to use and potential behavior and monitor changes in the factors influencing technology usage over time. Importantly, UTAUT2 not only consolidates research on technology use and acceptance but also provides a flexible framework capable of identifying new behavioral patterns in different contexts (Lee et al. 2017; Algahtani et al. 2021; Oncioiu and Priescu 2022; Marto et al. 2023).

Recent studies using the UTAUT2 model offer crucial insights into factors influencing VR adoption across various fields. Du and Liang (2024) identified that performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence, and hedonic motivation significantly affect continued VR usage, underscoring the importance of supportive environments and perceived benefits for long-term engagement. In medical training, Alarcon-Urbistondo et al. (2024) highlighted perceived entertainment as vital in fostering behavioral intention to adopt VR, stressing its immersive nature as a key motivator for adoption. Similarly, Puiu and Udristioiu (2024) focused on education, where usage satisfaction and task-technology fit were major determinants of VR usage, with system quality playing a critical role in ensuring effective implementation. These findings emphasize the need for well-designed VR systems across sectors, including tourism, to maximize engagement and adoption.

While UTAUT2 has been widely validated in various technological adoption contexts, its application in tourism—especially in developing regions like Tunisia—remains very limited. Additionally, the UTAUT2 model, though robust, does not fully account for context-specific factors that may influence VR adoption in emerging tourism markets. Our study contributes to the theoretical advancement of technology adoption models, specifically in the application of the UTAUT2 theory within the tourism sector, and more particularly, in the context of Virtual Reality (VR) adoption in a developing country.

Our study addresses a notable gap in the literature by integrating these factors into UTAUT2 in the context of heritage preservation and tourist engagement, areas often neglected in VR research. Despite the acknowledged potential of VR in promoting and preserving cultural heritage, few studies have provided a strong theoretical foundation for how VR adoption influences behavioral intention to visit cultural heritage sites. By filling this gap, our research adds significant value to the understanding of VR’s role in enhancing tourism and cultural engagement in developing regions like Tunisia. Our study aims to deepen the understanding of Virtual Reality (VR) adoption within the Tunisian tourism sector by enhancing the UTAUT2 framework with new, contextually significant concepts. This strategic integration broadens our research and offers a more nuanced perspective on technology acceptance, specifically in VR adoption. Through interviews with industry professionals, we identified key influencers such as perceived value, personal innovativeness, and trust expectancy as critical to successful VR adoption. These factors, already highlighted in previous studies, significantly impact behavioral intention and technology acceptance (Algahtani et al. 2021; Vishwakarma 2020; Choi et al. 2018).

By integrating both traditional and new factors relevant to VR adoption, our study provides a more comprehensive framework for understanding the key drivers of VR usage in the Tunisian tourism industry. This enhanced UTAUT2 model serves as a powerful tool for analyzing and predicting how VR can be effectively used to diversify and strengthen Tunisia's tourism offerings. The added value of our study lies in its ability to explore the interplay between established technology acceptance determinants and emerging factors, providing deeper insights into how VR can transform and sustain tourism in developing markets. This not only enriches the model's explanatory power but also ensures that it is more applicable and relevant to the local context.

In summary, our theoretical choices not only expand the UTAUT2 model's applicability but also provide a richer, more context-sensitive understanding of technology adoption in the tourism sector. This approach contributes valuable insights that can guide future research and inform practical strategies for leveraging VR technology to drive innovation and growth in Tunisian tourism.

Building upon the theoretical foundation established, the following conceptual framework will delve into the specific constructs and relationships that underpin our investigation, offering a detailed roadmap for how these elements will be operationalized and measured within the context of our study.

3 Conceptual framework

To build a strong conceptual foundation, we selected UTAUT and UTAUT2 as the core frameworks to capture factors influencing VR adoption in Tunisia's tourism sector, focusing on anticipated behaviors rather than post-experience evaluations. Given the region's limited exposure to VR, elements like Habit and Price Value were excluded, as they did not align with our study's non-commercial focus. Instead, we expanded the model to include more relevant constructs such as hedonic motivation, perceived value, personal innovativeness, and trust expectancy, which are critical in emerging markets like Tunisia.

This refined model provides a contextually relevant understanding of VR acceptance and offers actionable insights into how VR can be successfully introduced to enhance tourist experiences. Our study thus contributes significantly to both academic literature and practical applications, offering a tailored approach to technology adoption in developing tourism markets.

In this study, behavioral intention (BI) is selected as the dependent variable, representing the participants' propensity to adopt and engage with the desired technology. As outlined in Fig. 2, we hypothesize that BI is influenced by a diverse set of independent variables, including performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence, facilitating conditions, hedonic motivation, trust expectancy, perceived value, and personal innovativeness. To ensure a comprehensive understanding of the participants' profiles, we also gathered demographic data such as experience, gender, age, and educational level.

Fig. 2
figure 2

Research Model. It illustrates the Research Model, capturing the interrelationships between various variables under investigation. The model serves as a visual representation of the conceptual framework guiding the study, delineating the connections between independent and dependent variables. Through this graphical depiction, the complex relationships and pathways proposed by the research hypotheses are articulated, providing a clear roadmap for understanding the dynamics of the VR adoption

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This section delineates the hypothesized relationships that were formulated based on these identified factors. The proposed conceptual framework, depicted in Fig. 2, encompasses key constructs that are anticipated to significantly impact the intention to use VR. These constructs are critical in understanding the various drivers behind the adoption of VR technology within the targeted context (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3
figure 3

Final research model. It depicts the final research model, incorporating key constructs such as performance expectancy (PE), effort expectancy (EE), perceived value (PV), trust expectancy (TE), hedonic motivation (HM), behavioral intention (BI), personnel innovativeness (PI), and facilitating conditions (FC). This comprehensive model provides a structured framework for analyzing the relationships between these factors and their impact on user behavior and VR adoption within the context of the study

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3.1 Performance expectancy

One of key constructs is performance expectancy (PE), which pertains to the extent to which individuals believes that utilizing the technology will support them in accomplishing their objectives. Individuals tend to use an application built upon the intensity of support they receive for their work. As stated by Venkatesh et al. (2003), performance expectancy refers to the extent to which an individual believes that utilizing the system will contribute to achieving improvements in job performance (p.159). Venkatesh et al. (2012) outlined it as the extent to which utilizing a technology will offer advantages to consumers in carrying out specific activities (p. 447). The construct of performance expectancy is influenced by three contributing factors, namely perceived usefulness (PU), extrinsic motivation, and job fit. Notably, in previous studies, when examining individual models, the variables associated with performance expectancy consistently emerged as the most influential factors shaping the intention to adopt the target technology. This observation is further emphasized by Venkatesh et al. (2003, 2012) who highlight the robust predictive power of the performance expectancy construct in determining the intention to use a new technology. This dimension is considered the most important in determining individual behavior towards a technology (Wrycza et al. 2017; Marto et al. 2023). The positive link between expected performance and perceived success of IT is validated by many MIS researchers (Oncioiu and Priescu 2022; Pinto et al. 2022; Sharma et al. 2023; Rizkalla et al. 2023; Pablo et al. 2024; Calderón-Fajardo et al. 2024).

The construct of Perceived Expectancy (PE) encompasses several dimensions that influence users' perceptions of a technology. In this study, the items used to evaluate PE were restructured to align with the research context. The updated items aim to capture users' perceptions of the amount and quality of information available, the efficiency of acquiring information, the level of interest stimulated by the technology, and the distinctiveness of the exploration experience. By assessing these dimensions of PE, we can gain a comprehensive understanding of users' expectations and anticipations regarding the. virtual reality (VR) for visiting Cultural Heritage (CH) sites.

This construct encompasses various elements, including cultural enrichment, acquired knowledge, the ability to convey information, acquired cultural worth, and capacity to retain knowledge even after a considerable amount of time has passed. Consistent with existing literature, it is proposed that PE directly influences behavioral intention (Oncioiu and Priescu 2022; Marto et al. 2023; Pablo et al. 2024). The positive link between expected performance and perceived success of IT is validated by many MIS researchers (Pinto et al. 2022). Based on these based on these postulates, the subsequent hypothesis is put forth.:

Hypothesis 1

Performance expectancy have a positive impact on the behavioral intention to adopt and use the Virtual Reality tools.

This hypothesis posits that a higher level of performance expectancy will engender a greater inclination to adopt and utilize the Virtual Reality tools in Tunisian tourism context. In other words, individuals who perceive the system as instrumental in facilitating the attainment of their related goals will exhibit a stronger propensity to embrace and employ the Virtual Reality tools.

3.2 Effort expectancy

Effort expectancy pertains to the perceived degree of ease related with using the technology. Effort expectancy is outlined as level of ease related to system use (p. 450). This concept describes the degree of physical and mental effort that a person must provide to utilize a system (Venkatesh et al. 2003). Perceived effort thus reflects the user-friendliness of a system, in terms of ease of access to its content and the end-user's knowledge of its technical features.

Three concepts from the prevailing models summarize the construct of effort expectancy: perceived ease of use (TAM/TAM2), complexity (MPCU), and ease of use (IDT). There exists congruence in the definitions of the constructs and the measurement scales (Venkatesh et al. 2003, 2012). The resemblances among these concepts have been noted in previous research.

This construct encompasses several key aspects, including the simplicity in acquiring proficiency with the technology, the apprehension or fear associated with using VR in the given context, the adaptability encountered while engaging with the technology, coupled with the rapidity of response in the course of interactions (Chao 2019; Algahtani et al. 2021; Oncioiu and Priescu 2022; Pablo et al. 2024; Rizkalla et al. 2023). Extensive research has consistently demonstrated that effort expectancy strongly influences users' intentions and acceptance of technology.

In order to accurately evaluate the Effort Expectancy (EE) associated with the usage of virtual reality (VR) in the Tunisian tourism industry, we have made necessary updates to the assessment items. The revised items for our proposal include: Ease of Use, Clarity of Interaction, and Ease of Skill Acquisition. These dimensions aim to measure the ease with which users can navigate and interact with the VR technology, as well as their ability to acquire necessary skills. By incorporating these updated items, we can gain valuable insights into users' perceptions of the effort needed to use virtual reality in the context of tourism in Tunisia.

In this sense, the level of effort expectancy in virtual reality (VR) tools directly influences the strength of hedonic motivation, with higher levels of effort expectancy resulting in weaker hedonic motivation. When users perceive that using VR tools requires significant effort, such as complex navigation or demanding interactions, their motivation to engage in the experience for hedonic purposes diminishes. Effort expectancy encompasses factors like the ease of use, clarity of interaction, and the learning curve associated with VR technology. Therefore, when users anticipate a high level of effort and difficulty, their desire to derive pleasure, enjoyment, and immersive experiences from VR diminishes. To foster stronger hedonic motivation and enhance user experiences, it is crucial to minimize perceived effort in the use of VR tools, ensuring seamless and intuitive interactions that prioritize user enjoyment and engagement.

Building upon these findings, this study puts forward the subsequent hypothesis:

Hypothesis 2

Effort expectancy have a negative impact on the hedonic motivation to adopt and use the Virtual Reality tools.

According to this hypothesis, a higher perception of effort expectancy, indicating that the VR Tools is easy to use and navigate, will lead to a greater intention among users to adopt and utilize VR technology. This suggests that individuals are more inclined to embrace technologies that are perceived as user-friendly and require minimal effort to operate.

3.3 Social influence

Social influence encompasses the impact of social factors on an individual's behavior and decision-making regarding a system. Numerous studies within the domain of Management Information Systems (MIS) posit that users form their perceptions of technologies within the influential context of social systems (Venkatesh et al. 2003). Social influence pertains to the extent by which the thoughts, viewpoints and perspectives of others shape an individual's inclination to accept a technology.

Often within the context of their social network consisting of family and friends. Numerous contemporary research on technology adoption has incorporated this concept into their practical frameworks and have discovered empirical evidence supporting its impact (Venkatesh et al. 2003, 2012; Algahtani et al. 2021; Oncioiu and Priescu 2022; Pinto et al. 2022; Marto et al. 2023; Calderón-Fajardo et al. 2024; Rizkalla et al. 2023). Individuals are affected by the viewpoints, recommendations, and experiences of their social networks, which assume a pivotal role in their technology acceptance and adoption processes. The influence of social systems is considered instrumental in shaping users' perceptions and subsequent behaviors in relation to the system under consideration. Furthermore, social influence is recognized as a fundamental direct determinant influencing the behavioral intention to use technology.

In the broader context of social influence, the items included in this construct are influenced by the dynamics of significant interpersonal relationships and social status. In our pursuit of providing a thorough assessment of social influence in the utilization of virtual reality (VR) for visiting Cultural Heritage (CH) sites, we have refined and updated the measurement items based on insights from Marto et al. (2023) and Rizkalla et al. (2023). The revised items now encompass three dimensions: Influence of friends and family, opinion of friends and family and Impact of persons in the immediate surroundings. These dimensions aim to capture the influence and opinions of close social connections on individuals' process of making decisions and forming intentions to use VR in the context of exploring CH sites. By incorporating these updated items, our model offers a thorough comprehension of how social influence shapes the adoption of virtual reality within a given context of Cultural Heritage visits. These dimensions encompass the various ways in which social influence manifests, including the impact of personal networks, the persuasive power of close relationships, and the sway exerted by individuals in the immediate social environment. Based on this understanding, the subsequent hypothesis is posited.

Hypothesis 3

Social influence have a positive impact on the behavioral intention to adopt and use the Virtual Reality tools.

According to this hypothesis, a higher level of social influence, indicating that individuals are more influenced by the viewpoints and endorsements provided by their social network, will result in a greater intention among users to adopt and utilize VR technology. This suggests that the perceptions and recommendations of family, friends and pairs assume a substantial role in shaping users' behavioral intentions towards technology adoption.

3.4 Facilitating conditions

Facilitating conditions indicate users' evaluations of the resources and assistance offered for carrying out a behavior. Previous research, as indicated by Venkatesh et al. (2003), has identified facilitating conditions as a direct determinant of both behavioral intention (BI) and actual technology usage. Therefore, it is supposed that facilitating conditions will exert a positive impact on the behavioral intention to utilize VR technology.

The proposed model in our research aligns well with the evaluation of Facilitating Conditions (FC) as presented in the UTAUT2 model. In order to accurately evaluate the Facilitating Conditions (FC) within the specific framework of virtual reality (VR), we have updated the assessment items to align with VR technology. The revised items include: Appropriateness of knowledge, Compatibility with other technologies, Adequacy of resources, and Appropriateness of available support (Algahtani et al. 2021; Oncioiu and Priescu 2022; Marto et al. 2023; Calderón-Fajardo et al. 2024). These dimensions aim to measure the degree to which the required resources, knowledge, compatibility with other technologies, and support are available to support the use of VR. By incorporating these updated items, our assessment offers a holistic grasp of the elements that can amplify the adoption and utilization of VR technology in various domains.

Building upon this understanding, we suggest the subsequent hypothesis:

Hypothesis 4

Facilitating conditions have a positive impact on the behavioral intention to adopt and use the Virtual Reality tools.

In line with this hypothesis, a higher perception of favorable facilitating conditions, such as perception of opportunity offered by VR technology in Cultural Heritage (CH) sites, addressing technical issues and incidents that may arise, dealing with the complexity of the content showed through the technology and robust technical infrastructure, will contribute to an increased intention among users to adopt and utilize VR technology (Venkatesh et al. 2012). The presence of facilitating conditions is expected to provide users with a sense of readiness and confidence in utilizing the technology, thereby positively influencing their behavioral intention.

3.5 Hedonic motivation

In the field of Information Systems study, Hedonic motivation, denoting the enjoyment or pleasure stemming from technology usage, has been acknowledged as a noteworthy factor in influencing the acceptance and usage of technology (Brown and Venkatesh 2005; Venkatesh et al. 2012; Pinto et al. 2022; Algahtani et al. 2021; Le 2022; Hu et al. 2023; Marto et al. 2023; Calderón-Fajardo et al. 2024). This indicates that individuals who possess a higher intensity of hedonic motivation are inclined to have a stronger intention to use and adopt VR technology. Hedonic motivation, driven by the desire for pleasure, enjoyment, and immersive experiences, plays a significant role in shaping individuals' behavioral intentions towards VR systems. When users perceive VR as offering captivating and enjoyable experiences, their intention to use the technology intensifies. Therefore, understanding and catering to users' hedonic motivations are crucial in promoting VR adoption, enhancing user engagement, and ultimately facilitating the acceptance and success of VR systems in various domains, including entertainment, education, tourism, and beyond.

In order to describe the essence of hedonic motivation within the specific context of studying the perceived intention to adopt virtual reality (VR) tools in the Tunisian industry, we have carefully customized the assessment items. The revised items for assessing hedonic motivation (HM) include: Fun, Arousal, and Dominance (Venkatesh et al. 2016; Marto et al. 2023; Calderón-Fajardo et al. 2024). These dimensions aim to capture the enjoyable, stimulating, and empowering aspects of using VR tools. By incorporating these customized items, our study aims to accurately measure the hedonic motivation experienced by individuals when considering the acceptance and use of VR system in the Tunisian industry context.

The significance of this construct has been emphasized, particularly in its influence on the usage of technological systems, albeit indirectly, as supported by prior research (Venkatesh 2000; Achim and Kassim 2015; Marto et al. 2023). However, the potential direct impact of hedonic motivation on Behavioral Intention (BI) remains uncertain, with some studies even suggesting that it may not directly influence behavior (Venkatesh 2000; Venkatesh et al. 2016). To get a profounder understanding of the role of hedonic motivation in affecting Behavioral Intention, our model proposes a direct correlation between hedonic motivation and Behavioral Intention, aiming to investigate their correlation more comprehensively. By exploring this relationship, we aim to provide insight into the potential direct impact of hedonic motivation on users' intentions to engage with the technology, addressing the disparity within the prevailing research and providing valuable insights into the factors that stimulate users' behavioral intentions in relation to hedonic motivation.

Based on these theoretical foundations and the adjustments made, we propose the subsequent hypothesis:

Hypothesis 5

Hedonic motivation have a positive impact on the intention to adopt and use the Virtual Reality tools.

Consequently, we propose the inclusion of hedonic motivation as a predictor of the intention to use a VR tool in tourism context.

3.6 Perceived value

The essence of perceived value and its influential role in determining behaviors toward technology have been the topic of several studies (Nuhadriel and Keni 2021; Franco et al. 2022). Gharbi and Mimoun (2002) classify value conceptions into three categories. Firstly, perceived value is seen as a cognitive process that involves balancing the gains and sacrifices associated with a product or service. Traditionally rooted in an exchange value perspective, this utilitarian approach is based on the economic theory of value-utility. However, it has faced criticism for its reductionist nature, being characterized as utilitarian and overlooking the factors contributing to different value perspectives. Secondly, perceived value is considered an outcome arising from the interplay concerning the customer and the product or service. This perspective presents value as a relative preference shaped by the interaction experience, extending beyond consumption decisions to include cumulative consumption experiences. It views value as an affective and cognitive response of the consumer to various objects (Nuhadriel and Keni 2021). Holbrook (1999) has made a significant contribution to this approach by proposing a typology of value comprising three pivotal factors: extrinsic versus intrinsic value, self-oriented value versus other-oriented value, and active versus reactive value. Despite its conceptual richness, the perspective on value faces limitations, primarily due to its abstract and complex nature, making operationalization and handling challenging. It has predominantly focused on classifying sources of perceived value rather than considering their holistic assessment. However, within managerial contexts, the interest lies in identifying value dimensions and evaluating their contribution to overall value.

Thirdly, Perceived value is viewed as a cognitive trait of customers, connecting their personal values with product/service attributes (Sweeney and Soutar 2001). This mixed approach recognizes the cognitive "thinking" dimension and the emotional "feeling" dimension in shaping perceived value (Fanand al. 2022). Originating from the middle-to-end chain model, this perspective has led to numerous studies exploring the nuances of this alternative conceptualization. Sweeney and Soutar (2001) propose assessing overall value (PERVAL) along four distinct yet interconnected dimensions:

  • Functional value/quality: resulting from the perceived product/service quality and expected performance.

  • Monetary value: resulting from cost reductions associated with the product/service in the short or long term.

  • Emotional value: resulting from the emotional states elicited by the product/service.

  • Social value: emerging from the product's capability to improve one's social standing or self-image.

The monetary value is deemed irrelevant within the context of this study, as its primary focus is non-commercial. As a result, it will not be factored into the analysis conducted in this study.

Embracing this comprehensive "mixed" approach, for evaluating Virtual reality, allows us to leverage the advantages of a rational value analysis by identifying value creation source. Furthermore, it offers the opportunity to incorporate insights from research on experiential and consumer value, resulting in a more nuanced understanding of perceived value (Guo and Stuart 2009).

The correlation among Perceived Value (PV) and Behavioral Intention (BI) to use virtual reality (VR) in the tourism industry is interconnected and influential (Nuhadriel and Keni 2021; Franco et al. 2022; Xu et al. 2024). Perceived Value represents individuals' subjective assessment of the benefits and worth they perceive from engaging with VR technology for tourism purposes, including immersive experiences, enjoyment, and knowledge gained. This perceived value significantly impacts Behavioral Intention, which reflects individuals' inclination and willingness to adopt and utilize VR in their tourism activities. When individuals perceive higher value in using VR for tourism, such as enhanced experiences and valuable insights, it positively impacts their intention to use VR in their tourism endeavors (Franco et al. 2022. Wu et al. 2024). Conversely, if individuals perceive limited value or benefits in using VR, their intention to engage with VR in the tourism context may diminish. Thus, a higher perceived value of VR in tourism positively corresponds with a stronger behavioral intention to adopt and utilize VR technology for immersive tourism experiences.

Within the framework of VR, perceived value could be related to the immersive and interactive nature of the experience, the quality of the digital realm, the level of realism, the variety of content available, and the potential for entertainment or emotional engagement.

Referring to certain studies in management information systems, we acknowledge that the level of perceived value plays a substantial role in shaping the hedonic motivation to use virtual reality (VR) (Shah and Siddiqui 2021; Ashraf et al. 2021; Le 2022). When users perceive high value in the VR experience, including aspects such as enjoyment, entertainment, and personal gratification, their hedonic motivation to engage with VR is strengthened. The greater the perceived value, encompassing factors such as immersive content, interactive features, and novel experiences, the stronger the drive for individuals to embrace and utilize VR technology. This assumption highlights the importance of creating VR content and experiences that are perceived as valuable by users, as it can enhance their motivation to engage with VR technology and increase their overall satisfaction with the virtual experience. This highlights the importance of focusing on delivering compelling and valuable VR experiences that cater to users' hedonic needs, ultimately driving their motivation to engage with and adopt VR in various domains, including tourism.

When individuals perceive a high value in using VR, it triggers a hedonic motivation, which is driven by the desire for pleasure, enjoyment, and sensory stimulation. The immersive and captivating nature of VR experiences can provide individuals with a sense of novelty, excitement, and escapism. They may anticipate experiencing enjoyable and pleasurable sensations, exploring virtual worlds, or engaging in immersive activities that offer a break from their daily routines.

Hypothesis 6

Perceived Value have a positive impact on the hedonic motivation to adopt and use the Virtual Reality tools.

3.7 Personal innovativeness

In the field of innovation diffusion research, personal innovativeness has been widely acknowledged as the concept that individuals with a high propensity for innovation actively seek out new ideas. These highly innovative individuals demonstrate a greater willingness to adopt new technologies and exhibit a more effortless learning process in using them. Agarwal and Parasad (1998) conceptualize Personal Innovativeness (PI) as an individual's inclination to experiment with novel technologies. PI is regarded as an inherent characteristic stemming from Roger's Diffusion of Innovations Theory (2003). Yusoff et al. (2011) have observed a favorable impact of PI on Behavioral Intention (BI) within the realm of virtual reality (VR). Similarly, Van Raaij and Schepers (2008) have successfully corroborated this effect in the context of virtual learning environments in China.

In this sense, personal innovativeness reflects an individual's propensity to embrace and adopt new technologies and innovations. Those with a greater inclination towards personal innovativeness are more likely to perceive VR as a cutting-edge and transformative technology, resulting in higher expectations regarding its performance and capabilities (Yi et al. 2006; Algahtani et al. 2021). As personal innovativeness increases, individuals are more likely to anticipate enhanced user experiences, immersive environments, and innovative features from VR applications, thereby strengthening their performance expectancy (Marto et al. 2023).

Individuals possessing a greater level of personal innovativeness are inclined to perceive Virtual Reality tools as promising and effective in enhancing their tourism experiences. They are more inclined to believe that these tools can provide immersive and engaging virtual environments, allowing them to explore and interact with tourist destinations in unique and captivating ways. As a result, their heightened personal innovativeness fosters a positive outlook on the performance expectancy of Virtual Reality tools, leading to a greater intention to use them for tourism purposes. This highlights the significance of personal innovativeness as a driving force in shaping individuals' perceptions and expectations regarding the advantages and potential of the implementation of Virtual Reality in the tourism sector.

Understanding the influence of personal innovativeness on performance expectancy can aid in developing strategies to encourage VR adoption and optimize user satisfaction in various domains, such as tourism. Earlier investigations have consistently shown that personal innovativeness has a positive influence on technology adoption (Disztinger et al. 2017; Algahtani et al. 2021; Pinto et al. 2022; Molinillo et al. 2024). Within the context of this research, it is estimated that highly innovative individuals will impact the behavioral intention to use virtual reality (VR) technology in Tourism context. Drawing from this rationale, the subsequent hypothesis is proposed:

Hypothesis 7

Personal innovativeness have a positive impact on the performance expectancy of the Virtual Reality tools.

3.8 Trust expectancy

Trust in MIS is closely intertwined with the trust and credibility consumers place in a system, particularly from a commercial perspective. To gain a deeper understanding of consumer confidence in e-commerce, a model was developed to encompass the issues that donate to consumer trust in an online travel platform (Chen 2006; Kim et al. 2011; Huang and Liao 2015; Abou et al. 2020; Marto et al. 2023). Trust within the framework of m-learning has also been defined by Arpaci (2016) as how students perceive the system's reliability and trustworthiness, while Alalwan et al. (2017) described it as the buildup of trust beliefs associated with benevolence, integrity, and competence in the mobile banking sector.

Earlier studies operationalized students' trust levels based on their beliefs in reliability and trust. Additionally, an evaluation was conducted to explore the perceived credibility of web-based information, thereby illuminating the diverse perceptions that can reinforce web credibility. Ultimately, trust is described as a combination of belief, confidence, attitude, and expectation regarding the trustworthiness of another party in the realm of electronic commerce and mobile learning (Tang et al. 2004; Chao 2019; Sujood et al. 2023).

In our study, we broaden the concept of trust expectancy beyond its traditional focus in commerce to include ecological validity, which relates to users’ belief in the authenticity of a simulated environment. This expanded view incorporates not only the trustworthiness of the technological device but also the integrity and reliability of the content it delivers. By doing so, we capture a more comprehensive understanding of how trust in both the device and its contents influences users’ perceptions and experiences with VR technology.

Focusing on credibility, reliability, and trustworthiness, our approach aims to assess trust expectancy in the context of VR for Cultural Heritage site visits. This perspective allows us to explore how users perceive the credibility and dependability of VR technology, offering insights that can guide the development of VR solutions that foster greater trust, enhancing user acceptance and engagement with the system.

While some findings have noticed positive influences of trust on BI, others have noticed no significant correlation (Tang et al. 2004). For instance, Alalwan et al. (2017) established the importance of trust in affecting users' likelihood to accept mobile technologies, with trust significantly influencing students' BI toward using m-learning. In their, Augmented Reality Acceptance Model proposal, Marto et al. (2023) confirm the positive and significant relationship of trust expectancy with performance expectancy and demonstrates an indirect relation to BI. Conversely, Chao (2019) discovered no significant correlation between trust and BI. Furthermore, a relationship between trust expectancy (TE) and perceived expectancy (PE) was delineated within the framework of our research. This relationship was established to investigate the crucial role that trust expectancy plays in shaping users' perceptions and experiences while interacting with Virtual reality tools in tourism context. Recognizing the significance of these confidence-based emotions, the study sought to explore the influence of trust expectancy on users' acceptance and perception of the VR technology employed.

When individuals possess a greater degree of trust in VR, they tend to be more prone to perceive Virtual Reality as reliable, credible, and Trustworthy, which positively influences their overall perception of VR's benefits, performance, and usability in the tourism domain. Trust acts as a foundational element that shapes individuals' perceptions and expectations, enhancing their overall perceived expectancy to use VR in tourism (Marto et al. 2023). Therefore, by establishing a foundation of trust, individuals are more inclined to believe that Virtual Reality tools will deliver valuable and immersive tourism experiences, leading to a higher performance expectancy. Therefore, cultivating trust expectancy is essential for promoting the adoption and acceptance of Virtual Reality in the tourism industry.

Hypothesis 8

Trust expectancy have positive impact on the performance expectancy of the Virtual Reality tools.

The study's hypotheses were primarily derived from UTAUT2 postulated by Venkatesh et al. (2003, 2012), which centered on Perceived Expectancy (PE), Effort Expectancy (EE), Hedonic Motivation (HM), Social Influence (SI) and Facilitating Conditions (FC). Additionally, new constructs, namely Perceived Value (PV), Personal Innovativeness (PI), and Trust Expectancy (TE), were included in the study.

The flowing Table 2 provides a summary of the hypothetical scenarios categorizing them based on dependent and independent variables and outlining the connections relating the concepts.

Table 2 Overview of dependent and independent variables and hypothetical assumptions that were generated
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4 Methodology

The aim of this investigation is to explore the intended use of virtual reality in the context of the Tunisian tourism industry, particularly to optimize visits to Cultural Heritage sites. This by considering the significance of certain contextual factors in influencing the intention to utilize this tool. Furthermore, we aspire to propose corrective actions and recommendations on way to enhance the process of supporting VR users in the tourism context. To meet these objectives, a multi-method technique was used to collect the qualitative and quantitative data required to conduct this research project. This combination enables a more complete, holistic and contextual representation of the various dimensions of the phenomenon under study (Igalens and Roussel 1998). As part of an exploratory approach, eighteen (18) semi-directive interviews were conducted with professionals of Tunisian tourism industry.Footnote 3 The objective of this exploratory qualitative approach was to capture users' needs and expectations in order to integrate them into the measurement tool, and to gradually construct the questionnaire, taking into account their different points of view. The deductive phase then aims to confirm the presumptions resulting from the exploratory phase. The questionnaire was developed in three stages: (1) development of an initial version, (2) pre-testing to assess content validity and test questions and their sequencing, and finally (3) development of the final version of the questionnaire.

4.1 Collection data

The data collection phase for this research was meticulously planned to coincide with the peak visitation period at Cultural Heritage sites, which typically occurs during vacations. Specifically, the collection of acceptance-related data was scheduled for the spring of 2023, from March 20th to April 30th. This timing was strategic, aiming to capture the attitudes and behaviors of a diverse cross-section of visitors when tourism activity in Tunisia is at its zenith. The approach ensures that the data reflects a realistic snapshot of VR adoption potential among tourists during a period of high engagement.

The sample was selected to maximize diversity and representativeness, thereby ensuring that the findings could be generalized to the broader population of tourists in Tunisia. In consultation with the heads of various cultural heritage sites, a mixed-method approach was adopted for distributing the questionnaires. In some instances, we personally administered the questionnaires, directly inviting individuals to participate. This method ensured that participants were aware of the study's relevance and could ask questions for clarification, leading to more accurate responses. In other cases, visitors voluntarily participated, reflecting a self-selected interest in the subject matter. Additionally, online questionnaires were made available during the same time frame, leveraging platforms such as Google Forms, email communications, Instagram, and Facebook groups to reach a broader audience. This dual approach—combining face-to-face interaction with digital distribution—helped minimize biases associated with either method alone and increased the response rate.

The study garnered a total of 352 responses, with a sample population comprising 44% females and 56% males, and 68% falling within the 25–45 age range. Moreover, 72% of participants had attained a university and/or college education, while 38% identified as public or private employees. The demographic diversity of this sample—including gender, age, education, and employment status—provides a comprehensive and representative cross-section of the Tunisian tourist population. This enhances the generalizability of the findings, as the sample is reflective of the broader population's characteristics.

To ensure that the respondents were knowledgeable about and understood Virtual Reality in the context of Tunisia's tourism sector, the questionnaire was designed with several layers of validation. Firstly, the items were derived from relevant literature and tailored to the Tunisian context, ensuring that they resonated with the experiences and expectations of the respondents. Necessary revisions and adjustments were made to align with the local cultural and technological landscape. Also, given that the measurement tools were originally developed based on MIS literature in English, a meticulous translation process was assumed to ensure the questionnaire's accuracy and clarity in French. Additionally, the pre-testing phase of the questionnaire was crucial in refining the items for clarity and relevance, it was to confirm the validity of its content, question sequence, and comprehension among both English and French-speaking respondents. A small sample of 18 individuals, representing the target population, participated in this pre-test. Their feedback on wording, clarity, and length of the questionnaire was instrumental in refining the survey to ensure that all respondents, regardless of their background, could provide informed and meaningful responses as well as to assess content validity. Content validity denotes the degree to which the scales used effectively measure the various aspects of the concept being studied (Igalens and Roussel 1998; Evrard et al. 2003).

By incorporating the insights gained from the pre-testing stage, we were able to make necessary adjustments and enhancements to the initial version of the questionnaire, ensuring its accuracy and effectiveness in capturing the intended information. The questionnaire design was refined and fine-tuned to ensure that the final version accurately captured the intended constructs and facilitated meaningful responses from the respondents. In the context of this investigation, the answers were evaluated on 7‐point Likert‐type scales extending from 1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree.

The choice of analytical techniques—such as Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM)—was pivotal in uncovering the relationships between the variables. These techniques allowed for the rigorous testing of the proposed hypotheses, accounting for the complex interplay between the constructs under study. Moreover, the use of a 7-point Likert-type scale ensured a nuanced capture of the participants' attitudes, providing a detailed insight into their behavioral intentions regarding VR adoption. The combination of these methodological choices not only strengthens the internal validity of the study but also enhances the reliability of the findings.

The effectiveness of our sample selection is rooted in several strategic choices. Firstly, our data collection phase was meticulously timed to coincide with the peak visitation period at Cultural Heritage sites, typically occurring during vacations. This strategic alignment ensured engagement with a diverse and active tourist population, enhancing the relevance and generalization of our findings to the Tunisian tourism sector. Additionally, our collaboration with site authorities facilitated a systematic approach to questionnaire distribution, minimizing biases associated with ad-hoc sampling methods. By utilizing both in-person and online questionnaire methods, we catered to the preferences of a diverse demographic spectrum, thus enhancing the inclusivity and robustness of our sample. Finally, the demographic diversity of our sample, including gender, age, education, and employment status, ensures the representativeness of our findings, supporting their generalizability to the broader population of tourists in Tunisia.

In summary, the careful selection of the sample, the comprehensive approach to data collection, and the rigorous analytical methods employed ensure that the findings of this study are both robust and relevant. This methodology not only provides a clear understanding of the factors influencing VR adoption in Tunisian tourism but also offers a framework that could be adapted and applied to similar contexts elsewhere.

4.2 Analysis procedures

The psychometric quality of the measurement scales used is examined in two phases. A first exploratory phase using Principal Component Analysis (PCA), and a second, confirmatory phase using Confirmatory Factorial Analysis (CFA). Indeed, Convergent validity and discriminant validity are tested. Principal Component Analysis (PCA), used in this study, is certainly the most widely used analysis technique in previous IS research. It enables us to investigate the factor structure and verify the internal consistency of the constructs. Thus, the test of convergent validity aims to explore the factor structure by optimally summarizing the information encompassed within the items of every scale (though striking a balance between quality and quantity of information) (Evrard et al. (2003). PCA benefits verify, therefore, the homogeneity of each measurement scale through scrutinizing the unidimensionality of the measurement concepts and assigning a correlation (referred to as "factor loading") to each item of the construct identified by PCA (Igalens and Roussel 1998). CFA aims to validate the psychometric quality of the results obtained from the exploratory phase. The objective of discriminant validity is to assess the level of independence among attributes of theoretically various concepts. This analysis allows evaluating the discriminant nature of constructs within the same concept. According to Igalens and Roussel (1998), the use of Principal Component Analysis (PCA) provides the opportunity to mitigate the issue of multicollinearity between various variables. Generally, only the axes with eigenvalues greater than or equal to 1 are retained, while items with communalities lower than 0.4 and those that form a factor on their own are excluded.

Selecting a proficient factorial model holds significant importance within the realm of Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA). Additionally, it is imperative to meticulously evaluate the factorial loads and errors, thereby establishing their statistical validity and corroborating their appropriateness for a particular study. In this investigation, the analysis of the proposed model under investigation employed CFA in conjunction with a Structural Equation Model (SEM) with SPSS/AMOS 27 software. The mediation model underwent rigorous testing to ascertain the validity and consistency of the metrics, in alignment with established literature. Numerous research assumptions were examined to elucidate the significance of loadings and coefficients associated with each pathway.

The reliability of the scales is assessed using Cronbach's Alpha to evaluate the internal consistency of the scales and their ability to produce consistent results when used repeatedly on the same phenomenon. It's a widely employed statistical technique frequently referenced by numerous authors. This technique serves to demonstrate the relevance of constructed or adopted tests and scales in elucidating research outcomes.

4.3 Data analysis and results

The Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Confirmatory Factorial Analysis (CFA) was performed following the procedures explained in the earlier Section. The model was assessed utilizing the dimensions that corresponded to the outlined constructs, which include Trust Expectancy (TE), Personal Innovativeness (PI), Facilitating Conditions (FC), Social Influence (SI), Hedonic Motivation (HM), Effort Expectancy (EE), Perceived Value (PV), Performance Expectancy (PE, and Behavioral Intention (BI).

To evaluate construct validity and reliability, convergent and discriminant validity were evaluated. The results showed a good weighted Average Variance Extracted (AVE) score, exceeding the recommended threshold of 0.5 proposed by Fornell and Larcker (2016), indicating strong convergence validity. Additionally, the weighted Composite Reliability (CR) score demonstrated the internal uniformity of the measurement elements. Igalens and Roussel (1998) suggest that a CR score above 0.70 indicates convergence validity. Only measurement items with factor loadings meeting acceptable statistical parameters AVE > 0.5, CR > 0.7, α > 0.7) were considered. Furthermore, the AVE values were less than the inter-correlations of dissimilar constructs, confirming the presence of discriminant validity, as suggested by Fornell and Larcker (2016), and satisfying the required criteria.

Concerning the consistency of the items and factors, the analysis revealed a strong overall internal reliability (α = 0.977) based on the sample of 352 participants. The evaluation of Cronbach's Alpha (α) demonstrated that the degree of internal coherence across each item. within the model exceeded 0.8, indicating high validity, internal coherence, and descriptive reliability. These findings support the robustness of the model and provide confidence in the measurements used to assess the constructs in the study.

Furthermore, the sample size was evaluated to ensure it satisfied the prerequisites for structural equation analysis, which advocate a smallest of 5 observations for every construct within the conceptual model.

While Hoelter (1983) posits comparable thresholds, there is a suggestion to explore more intricate models featuring fewer indicators per construct and larger sample sizes. In accordance with the existing literature, the selected sample size for this study was ascertained suitable for applying structural equation models. The structural equation model employed facilitates multivariate analysis, permitting the assessment of more intricate models than those attainable through conventional linear regression, as noted by Bagozzi et al. (2012).

The assessment of model fit evaluates the quality of alignment between the theoretical model and the examined empirical data. This assessment is based on various statistical fit indices (Table 3). The test of the general hypothesis, via the structural equation method, requires the analysis of three categories of indices—absolute, incremental and parsimonious—to assess the goodness of fit of the research model to the observed data. Overall, the values of the fit indices are satisfactory and meet broadly the thresholds recommended by previous studies (Roussel et al. 2002). The following table summarizes the values of the different indices associated with the optimal model.

Table 3 Measurement of constructs
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The summary of the tested hypotheses can be found in Table 5, while Tables 4 and 5 display the acquired regression weights and standardized regression weights, respectively.

Table 4 Fit quality
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Table 5 Hypotheses and statistical analyses outcomes
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5 Discussion

This section offers a comprehensive examination and discourse on the outcomes derived from the study concerning the intention to embrace Virtual Reality (VR) technology within the framework of Tunisian tourism. The focus is on examining the various determinants that impact users' intention to use VR technology in this given industry.

It is crucial to acknowledge certain notable deficiencies in the existing literature that were considered during the execution of this research. An imperative need to incorporate new constructs alongside the UTAUT was highlighted in previous acceptance studies (Li et Zhao, Li et al. 2022; Kwarteng et al. 2023; Marto et al. 2023). This requirement is effectively addressed by the proposal of an updated model based on UTAUT2 in this research. This model is focused on exploring the intention to utilize Virtual Reality (VR) as a novel technology in Tourism industry. Indeed, to enhance the organizational relevance of our evaluation framework for perceived success of Virtual Reality (VR), several contextual factors were incorporated into the analysis, as they have been noted for their influence on users' beliefs and behaviors. Contextual variables typically hold distinctive importance in various studies on the evaluation of Information Systems (IS) success, as they provide interpretations and justifications to understand the evaluation process and outcomes. It is imperative to note that the contextual dimensions were sorted based on their level of controllability, in other words, the extent to which the organization can generate and implement appropriate corrective actions to achieve more favorable perceptions towards VR tools.

In addition, considering certain weaknesses recognized within the literature, this research highlights the necessity to broaden the extent of acceptance research to encompass multiple heritage sites, rather than confining data collection to a singular site (Algahtani et al. 2021; Oncioiu and Priescu 2022). This approach aims to diversify the sources of information to ensure better generalization of the results and provide relevant external validity for this research. By including multiple sites, the study aims to improve the external validity and increase the robustness of the outcomes, allowing for a more extensive comprehension of the acceptance of VR technology in the context of Tunisian tourism. Additionally, our study aims to overcome the limitation of small sample size (Li et al. 2022; Marto et al. 2023) or samples limited to a specific population or generation (Iskandar et al. 2020; Kwarteng et al. 2023) by incorporating a large and diverse sample of respondents. This approach enables us to suggest a contextual model to gauge the intention to use virtual reality across various scenarios and in different contexts, including diverse cultures.

Moreover, our proposed model considers the significant factors of trust expectancy, personal innovativeness, and perceived value in technology acceptance. By integrating these key factors and employing a diverse research sample, our approach effectively addresses the challenges highlighted in the literature concerning tourists' interactions with the specific technology being studied. This comprehensive model provides valuable comprehensions of the pivotal roles of trust and perceived value in the acceptance and successful adoption of the technology, thereby offering a more informed and effective approach in the context of tourism.

Performance Expectancy (PE), as consistently supported by prior research, has been shown to significantly influence Behavioral Intention (BI), confirming that a stronger belief in a technology's performance leads to a larger intention to use the system (Lee et al. 2017; Oncioiu and Priescu 2022; Pinto et al. 2022; Marto et al. 2023; Kwarteng et al. 2023). Within the confines of applying VR tools to Tunisian tourism, it is crucial to recognize the significance of performance expectancy in influencing users' intention to use the technology. A stronger belief in the technology's performance expectancy directly correlates with a greater intention to use VR tools. To leverage this relationship, it is crucial for managers and stakeholders within the realm of tourism to emphasize the benefits and advantages of VR in enhancing the tourist experience. This can be achieved through effective communication and marketing strategies that emphasize the immersive and transformative capabilities of VR technology. Additionally, providing demonstrations, interactive experiences, and testimonials from satisfied users can further strengthen the belief in the technology's performance. To ensure a seamless user experience, it is important to invest in high-quality VR equipment and provide adequate training and support to users. By instilling confidence in the performance of VR tools, the intention to use them can be enhanced, leading to a wider adoption and incorporation of VR technology in the Tunisian tourism industry.

In addition, our research has shed light on the factors that distinctly impact PE within the given context of a novel technology like Virtual Reality (VR). We found that PE in VR is influenced by several factors, including the personal innovativeness, the perceived value it brings to users, and the level of trust users have in its capabilities. Notably, we observed that higher levels of Personal Innovativeness (PI) among users are associated with stronger PE, indicating that individuals who are more open to change and demonstrate a willingness to embrace innovation are more likely to have higher performance expectations from VR in the context of Tunisian tourism. To capitalize on this relationship, managers can focus on targeting and engaging with users who exhibit high levels of personal innovativeness. By tailoring marketing and communication strategies to appeal to these individuals, organizations can highlight the innovative features, unique experiences, and potential benefits of VR technology in the tourism sector. Furthermore, offering opportunities for personalization and customization can further enhance the performance expectations of users with high personal innovativeness, as they are more receptive to novel and innovative offerings.

This unique integration of Personal Innovativeness within the PE construct is an innovative adding to the technology acceptance model (UTAUT2). We draw parallels between this concept and the role of Personal Innovativeness in affecting a user's intention to adopt new technologies, as both emphasize a proactive approach to change. Consistent with existing literature highlighting the importance of Personal Innovativeness in technology acceptance, this construct in our model further reinforces the influential role of individual innovativeness in VR adoption (Oncioiu and Priescu 2022; Marto et al. 2023).

Moreover, the research findings denote that there exists a positive correlation between trust expectancy and performance expectancy. This observation aligns with the existing literature that has shown trust to have a positive influence on loyalty (Kim et al. 2011; Abou et al. 2020; Marto et al. 2023). Within the framework of this study, loyalty denotes the degree of commitment, trust, and repeat behavior exhibited by users towards the VR technology. It reflects the intention of users to continue using VR tools, recommend them to others, and participate in favorable word-of-mouth promotion. Loyalty in this context signifies a strong bond between users and the VR technology, indicating their trust in its effectiveness, value, and ability to enhance their overall tourism experience.

Although not commonly included in acceptance models, the validation of trust expectancy in the proposed model highlights adding indirect influence on behavioral intention (BI), thus assuming a significant role in the technology acceptance framework. Thus, our outcomes demonstrate a strong and positive relationship between higher levels of Trust Expectancy (TE) among users and both stronger Performance Expectancy (PE) and Behavioral Intention (BI) to use Virtual Reality (VR) in the context of tourism. The findings underscore therefore the pivotal role of trust in shaping users' perceptions not only about the performance and effectiveness of VR technology but also their intention to adopt and utilize it in their tourism experiences. When users possess a significant level of trust in VR, they are more likely to believe that the technology will deliver the desired outcomes and benefits, leading to increased expectations regarding its performance. Additionally, this trust-driven positive perception extends beyond mere expectations, as users who trust the technology are also more inclined to express a genuine intention to incorporate VR into their tourism activities and decision-making.

Taking a managerial perspective, these insights hold substantial implications for tourism-related businesses and VR technology providers. Firstly, fostering a trustworthy and reliable VR environment is of utmost importance, ensuring that users can depend on the technology to meet their needs and expectations consistently. This can be achieved through transparent and reliable communication about the capabilities of VR, offering clear and honest information about the VR experiences it provides and addressing any concerns or uncertainties that users may have. Additionally, prioritizing data security and user privacy can enhance trust levels significantly. This can be achieved through effective communication strategies and the establishment of trust-building measures such as user testimonials, certifications, and guarantees.

Providing adequate support and training is also important. Offering comprehensive training to both visitors and tourism professionals on how to effectively use VR tools will contribute to a smoother user experience. Moreover, fostering collaboration with local tourism stakeholders, such as tour operators and cultural heritage organizations, can lead to the integration of VR tools into existing tourism offerings, enhancing visitor loyalty. Continuous improvement is key to maintaining loyalty. Gathering feedback from VR users and incorporating their suggestions and preferences into the development and refinement of VR content and technology will ensure that it aligns with visitor expectations and enhances their overall satisfaction. To enhance Loyalty in the context of applying VR tools to Tunisian tourism, it is crucial to focus on improving the overall VR experience by investing in high-quality content that provides immersive and captivating interactions with Tunisian tourism sites. This can be achieved by collaborating with local experts, incorporating storytelling elements, and leveraging historical and cultural resources. Moreover, technical reliability is paramount to ensure a seamless and enjoyable VR experience. Regular maintenance of VR equipment, clear instructions for usage, and prompt resolution of technical issues are necessary to minimize disruptions and frustrations among users.

Furthermore, recognizing the correlation between trust, performance expectancy, and behavioral intention, businesses can focus on building trust-building measures that go beyond mere technological aspects. Factors like exceptional customer service, personalized experiences, and efficient issue resolution can contribute to creating a positive user experience that fosters trust and subsequently drives performance expectancy and behavioral intention to use VR in tourism. By strategically integrating these managerial implications, stakeholders in the Tunisian tourism industry can capitalize on the power of trust to not only enhance the perception of VR technology but also encourage its adoption and utilization among users, resulting in a more engaging, immersive, and successful VR-driven tourism experience.

The research findings reveal a significant relationship between higher levels of perceived value (PV) among users and stronger performance expectancy in the context of virtual reality (VR) usage. When users perceive greater value in utilizing VR technology for tourism purposes, such as increased enjoyment, enhanced information acquisition, or improved decision-making, their expectations regarding the performance and effectiveness of VR are elevated. This suggests that the perceived value derived from VR technology assumes a pivotal role. in shaping users' beliefs about the positive outcomes and benefits they can attain through its usage, leading to a stronger performance expectancy.

Furthermore, our results corroborate the postulate that the deeper perceived value is, the stronger, Hedonic motivation to use VR will be (Shah and Siddiqui 2021; Ashraf et al. 2021; Le 2022; Franco et al. 2022). Perceived value refers to the benefits, advantages, and overall worth that individuals associate with a particular product or service. In the context of VR, perceived value includes factors such as the immersive and realistic experiences, the sense of escapism and entertainment, the ability to explore new worlds and environments, and the opportunity for personal growth and enrichment. When users perceive VR as valuable, they are more likely to be motivated by the pleasure, enjoyment, and sensory stimulation it provides. This hedonic motivation drives their desire to engage with VR technology, explore its possibilities, and fully immerse themselves in the virtual experiences. Therefore, organizations and developers should strive to create and deliver VR experiences that provide a strong perceived value, offer innovative features and functionalities catering to the diverse needs and preferences of users, and ensuring that the benefits and enjoyment associated with VR are effectively communicated. By consistently delivering high-perceived value, they can increase users' hedonic motivation to engage with VR and foster positive user experiences.

Moreover, the study also indicates that greater levels of perceived value are linked to stronger effort expectancy. Effort expectancy means the perceived ease of use and the level of effort required to interact with VR technology. When users perceive bigger value in using VR for tourism, they are more likely to view the technology as worth the effort and are motivated to overcome any potential challenges or learning curves associated with its usage. This implies that the perceived value not only influences users' expectations of VR's performance but also influences their perceptions of the ease and convenience of using the technology.

These results have substantial managerial implications for the tourism industry. Organizations should prioritize the enhancement of perceived value of VR experiences by offering compelling and engaging content, seamless user interfaces, and personalized interactions. By emphasizing the benefits and value that users can derive from VR technology, such as immersive storytelling, virtual tours of popular destinations, or interactive cultural experiences, managers can effectively increase users' performance expectancy and their willingness to invest the effort required to engage with VR. Additionally, providing user-friendly interfaces and clear instructions can further strengthen users' effort expectancy and facilitate their assumption and usage of virtual reality in the tourism context.

In this study, the hedonic motivation construct was updated by incorporating the dimension of "control" in addition to arousal and fun, which were previously examined in acceptance studies (Venkatesh et al. 2012; Huang and Liao 2015; Marto et al. 2023). The inclusion of the control dimension aimed to achieve a more comprehensive understanding of individuals' emotions and feelings towards the system. The results obtained support the notion that the more pronounced a participant's hedonic motivation is in relation to pleasure, enjoyment, and mastery in utilizing the system, the more robust their intention to use it will become. The outcomes acquired corroborate the concept that heightened hedonic motivation among participants, characterized by pleasure, enjoyment, and control in system utilization interaction, directly corresponds to a more intensified behavioral intent to utilize the system.

It is worth noting that these findings align with prior research (Venkatesh et al. 2012, 2016; Algahtani et al. 2021; Marto et al. 2023) but not with other recent study (Iskandar et al. 2020) which did not acquire a substantial effect of hedonic motivation on behavioral intention to utilize. While both studies considered hedonic motivation as a two-dimensional construct focused on fun and pleasure, our investigation highlights the significance of hedonic motivation and its three facets in acceptance research as essential elements for understanding this construct (Marto et al. 2023). The findings acquired from the study highlight the importance of hedonic motivation in affecting participants' behavioral intention to use VR tools in the context of Tunisian tourism. This indicates that managers in the tourism industry should focus on enhancing the pleasure, fun, and perceived control associated with using VR systems. To achieve this, they can design immersive and engaging VR experiences that provide unique and enjoyable interactions for tourists visiting cultural heritage sites. Additionally, they can offer personalized and customizable features that allow users to have a sense of control and empowerment during their VR experiences. Moreover, continuous evaluation and improvement of the VR systems based on user feedback and preferences can help ensure a positive user experience and strengthen their intention to use the technology. By emphasizing these aspects of hedonic motivation, managers can increase the attractiveness and appeal of VR tools, ultimately leading to higher acceptance and adoption among tourists in the Tunisian tourism industry.

Furthermore, the research reveals that Effort Expectancy exerts a negative impact on hedonic motivation. This model seeks to explore new relationships for the hedonic motivation concept, coherent with prior study that has established a correlation between Effort Expectancy and various constructs beyond behavioral intention (Marto et al. 2023).

It is noteworthy that the role of effort expectancy has varied in previous studies, including its positive effect on performance expectancy scales (Venkatesh et al. 2003, 2012) or being excluded from the model altogether (Wrycza 2017; Marto et al. 2023). In our suggestion, EE is linked to hedonic motivation and demonstrates a negative impact. The relationship between hedonic motivation and EE suggests that the more users perceive a higher effort expectancy in using the system, the lower their hedonic motivation will be. This indicates that when individuals anticipate a greater level of effort required to interact with the technology, it diminishes their enjoyment, pleasure, and overall motivation to engage with it. Considering the results, it is evident that the perceived effort expectancy plays a crucial role in shaping users' hedonic motivation to use VR tools in the context of Tunisian tourism. To enhance users' hedonic motivation, managers need to focus on reducing perceived effort and making the VR system as user-friendly and effortless as possible. This can be achieved through intuitive user interfaces, clear instructions, and providing adequate support and guidance to users. Additionally, incorporating elements of enjoyment, excitement, and pleasure in the VR experiences can help increase users' hedonic motivation. By addressing the perceived effort expectancy and enhancing the hedonic aspects of VR, managers can promote greater user engagement, and intention to use the technology in the Tunisian tourism industry.

Coherent with prior research (Venkatesh et al. 2012; Oncioiu and Priescu 2022; Marto et al. 2023), the current study corroborates the impact of Facilitating Conditions on Behavioral Intention as a significant direct aspects of users' behavior. The findings indicate that the more robust the facilitating conditions become, the more potent the inclination to engage in behavioral VR usage. However, it is important to highlight that certain studies have produced contrasting results concerning the correlation involving facilitating conditions 0and BI. For instance, certain studies report a positive impact of Facilitating Conditions on Effort Expectancy (Wrycza et al. 2017), while others predict its influence on Performance Expectancy (Alqahtani et al. 2021), or even associate it with the perceived perceived usefulness and ease of use. Interestingly, some researches using the UTAUT model either exclude this construct altogether (Moura et al. 2017) or do not validate it during their research (Lee et al. 2017; Li and Zhao 2021; Li et al. 2022).

The variability in outcomes considering the role of facilitating conditions underscores the significance of further investigation and understanding its specific effect on technology acceptance. Managers and researchers should carefully consider the context and specific requirements of the technology being studied to determine the significance of facilitating conditions in promoting user acceptance. In practical terms, providing adequate resources, training, and support to users could enhance their perception of facilitating conditions, thereby positively affecting their intention to use the technology. Moreover, subsequent research endeavors could investigate the nuanced relationships between facilitating conditions and other determinants of technology acceptance, for instance, effort expectancy and performance expectancy, to get an in-depth grasp of the factors that drive user behavior and adoption. By addressing these complexities and refining the understanding of Facilitating Conditions, organizations can effectively leverage this construct to encourage users' acceptance and adoption of new technologies.

Nevertheless, the findings of this study did not corroborate hypothesis which proposed that stronger social influence would indicate a stronger behavioral intention to use the system. This finding is coherent with the divergent results reported in the literature and the ongoing discussions surrounding the role of social influence in technology acceptance. While social influence has been found to be Social influence has been identified as significant in some research studies (Venkatesh et al. 2012, 2016; Oncioiu and Priescu 2022), it has been demonstrated to be nonsignificant in predicting behavioral intention in numerous other studies (Moura et al. 2017; Lee et al. 2017; Marto et al. 2023), and in some cases, it has been omitted from the models altogether (Alqahtani et al. 2021; Li et al. 2022).

However, it is worth noting that social influence still holds relevance in the context of adopting new technologies, particularly from a professional standpoint (Li and Zhao,2021). Its impact becomes more prominent when technology acceptance is mandatory rather than optional (Venkatesh et al. 2003).

The findings indicating that the hypothesis proposing a positive correlation between social influence and intention to use VR tools within the context of Tunisian tourism was not corroborated. This indicates that the impact of social factors, for instance, the perspectives and viewpoints of friends and family or the impact of social circles, may not be a significant determinant of users' intention to use VR technology in the tourism industry.

Though, this provides valuable understandings for managers and decision-makers in the Tunisian tourism sector. Instead of solely relying on social influence, it is crucial to direct attention to other factors that can enhance users' intention to use VR tools. Managers can shift their attention to promoting the unique features and benefits of VR technology, emphasizing the immersive experiences, the ability to explore cultural heritage sites virtually, and the potential for personalized and memorable experiences. By highlighting the value proposition and addressing any concerns or barriers users may have, managers can better position VR tools as attractive and desirable options for tourists in Tunisia.

However, statistical evidence has shown a positive effect of social influence on performance expectancy, which corroborates the results of other studies (Marto et al. 2023). These findings hold significant implications for managers and organizations involved in promoting technology acceptance in the context of Tunisian tourism. While social influence may not exert a significant direct influence on behavioral intention, it still plays a pivotal role in determining users' perception of Performance Expectancy. Therefore, managers should focus on highlighting the unique technological innovations offered by VR tools and their potential to enhance the overall user experience. Additionally, they should recognize the professional context in which social influence can be more influential, especially when mandatory technology adoption is involved. By emphasizing the relatedness of technological features and leveraging sensorial innovation, organizations can optimize users' perceived value and performance expectancy, ultimately increasing their intention to use the technology in the Tunisian tourism context.

5.1 Theoretical and methodological contributions

Assessing the perceived success of virtual reality tools is a promising undertaking. However, the various facets of performance have led us to position ourselves from the point of view of the potential end-user of VR to ensure its evaluation. This positioning led us to consider complementary and interdisciplinary theoretical approaches, stemming from work in behavioral sciences, marketing and MSI, highlighting the multidimensional aspect of the success of VR tools in the tourism context. The first, relating to the acceptance of VR tools, offers food for thought on the external contextual elements capable of determining users' beliefs and perceptions, and the individual consequences of VR acceptance by end-users. This approach highlights the determinants of acceptance, and thus postulates the modalities of its implementation and success. It has enabled us to identify a set of contextual determinants of evaluation. The second, relating to value, proposes the use of the concept of perceived value of VR tools, borrowed from the marketing field. The adaptation of the "PERVAL" measurement instrument to the needs of this research enabled us to consider three original dimensions, namely utilitarian value (quality), emotional value (hedonic), and symbolic value (social). The inclusion of a multidimensional measure of perceived value in our research model is designed to meet a number of objectives. Firstly, it responds to the call from some researchers for further study of the PERVAL version as an appropriate measure of the perceived value of ICT (Sweeney and Soutar 2001). Secondly, it provides empirical support for the relationship assuming the causal effect of perceived value dimensions on user satisfaction with. Finally, the multidimensional concept of "perceived value" helps managers to diagnose the strengths and weaknesses of the functionalities and services they offer users, and to target actions to improve their value.

The theoretical approaches considered to answer the problematic of this study admit an extensive conceptual richness to interpret the perceived success of VR tools in the tourism context. These approaches highlight the relationship between the use of VR, its contextual determinants and the various measures of its success, as well as its established performance.

The combination of these theoretical approaches makes it possible to present an original conceptual research model for studying and analyzing the problem of evaluating the perceived success of virtual reality tools in a particular context. The conceptual model proposed in this research is based on a determinism of relationships between exogenous variables and endogenous variables assigned to consolidate the different theoretical underpinnings considered. Empirical validation of the conceptual model proposed in this research was achieved via empirical data collected from potential end-users of cultural heritage sites. The overall analysis of the results consolidated the causal structure of the proposed conceptual model.

The results revealed in this research confirm the conceptual model's internal consistency, validity and choice of variables. They support the importance of the relationships between the process of acceptance, perceived value and perceived success of VR technologies, and confirm the consequent importance of contextual factors on the perceptions and value of VR tools for the Tourism context. Thus, this empirical research ultimately confirms the importance of the North American and Anglo-Saxon work of the last ten years addressing the issue of perceived success of ICTs.

In order to complement the theoretical contributions just outlined, it is essential to highlight the methodological contributions of this research. Based on a modified positivist epistemology, this study opted for both qualitative and quantitative methods of investigation to investigate the perceived success of virtual reality tools for cultural heritage preservation sites. The application of this method gave rise to a number of contributions. Firstly, conducting the research in two phases, an exploratory qualitative phase and a deductive quantitative phase, is an original approach that allows us to embrace the contextual reality of the field of investigation, to better understand the effects of the VR e on users' behavior, and to deepen the diagnosis of the various results. The first exploratory stage, based on a qualitative "abduction" approach, enabled us to finalize the selection of the dimensions considered in the conceptual model of the research, and to gradually construct the measuring instrument with a view to using it in the deductive phase of the research. We carried out "participant" observation, which not only enabled us to foster direct contact with the potential end-users of the VR, and thus consolidate their effective participation in the study, but above all contributed to a better understanding of the cultural and organizational framework of the sites under study. Indeed, conducting a series of semi-directive interviews with end-users, with divergent business profiles and disparate experiences with IT in general and the VR in particular, enabled us to highlight their various sources of dissatisfaction and dissatisfaction, to verify the existence of the characteristics identified by the theoretical framework, and to explore the field of investigation by pinpointing specific features.

The second deductive stage, based on a quantitative approach employing the "questionnaire" survey, provided the opportunity to gather primitive data relating to users' perceptions of the success of VR technology and its effect on individual user performance. The questionnaire survey offered the opportunity to interview a wide range of users in a short time, and to approve the measurement scales considered in the context of this study. The various measurement scales developed as part of the empirical investigations contribute to the methodological contributions of this study. The measurement instruments considered in this study are likely to be taken up again, reinforced, readapted or refined for future studies devoted to VR tools. In addition, several measurement tools are likely to be adapted to new contexts and for the evaluation of other ICTs.

Another level of methodological contribution of this research consists in the implementation of various data analysis methods to support the results obtained. Two different methods were used simultaneously and in a complementary way, firstly to confirm the different scales of measurement of the constructs considered, and secondly to verify the hypotheses on causality between these dimensions.

Initially, descriptive methods made it possible to assess the internal structure of the constructs considered in this research, as well as their conceptual independence. Exploratory analysis using principal components analysis (PCA) followed by Cronbach's alpha test (α), were applied to test the psychometric qualities of the scales used to measure the various metric variables. In this sense, the results corroborated the construct validity and reliability of multi-attribute scales adjusted to the context studied. They made it possible to calculate factor scores, distributed according to a reduced-centered normal distribution, which form a method that is fairly easy to interpret and exploit for testing and analyzing causal relationships between variables, as well as evaluating research hypotheses (Roussel et al. 2002).

Furthermore, explanatory methods were used to highlight postulated causal relationships between the latent constructs of the research conceptual model. Structural equation modeling (SEM), applied in AMOS 27, enabled us to confirm the overall structure of the conceptual research model, and to test and analyze the various hypotheses proposed. The main contribution of structural equations compared with widely-used classical approaches, notably regressions, lies in the possibility of processing simultaneous estimates of several interrelated dependency relationships. This method also allows measurement errors to be taken into account directly in the estimation process, so that the various estimates of regression coefficients are more precise and accurate than with conventional methods (Roussel et al. 2002). Path Analysis, on the other hand, confirmed the chain of direct and indirect causalities between the various external (contextual) factors, the perceived value of VR tools, the intention to use them and their impact on the success of this technology. Exploitation of this technique corroborated the presence of a hierarchical structure of impacts of the explanatory dimensions of the perceived success of VR tools in the Tunisian tourism context. The combination of these methods makes it possible to mitigate and control the methodological difficulties inherent in this type of research. In addition, the simultaneous use of a series of data analysis methods helps to increase the explanatory capacity of the variables retained in the conceptual model, as demonstrated by the results of this work.

In conclusion, the major methodological contribution of this research work lies in the application of both a qualitative and quantitative approach to study the issue of the perceived success of VR tools in the Tunisian tourism context. This choice is in line with a new position in MIS work, and for this study consists in considering the organizational and cultural card studied by appreciating subjective measures (self-evaluation).

5.2 Managerial implications and corrective actions

The objective of this study is to understand users' evaluation of virtual reality services and functionalities in the Tunisian tourism context, and their perceptions of the value induced through a set of contextual persuasive factors. The contextual variables were selected according to their degree of controllability, to enable the organization to engage the appropriate levers of action to achieve a more favorable perception of the role of virtual reality tools.

The results indicate that Personal Innovativeness and Trust Expectancy positively impact performance expectancy within the context of VR tools to Tunisian tourism. Based on these findings, several managerial implications and corrective actions can be proposed:

  • Build trust through transparency and reliability: Managers should focus on establishing trust in the VR technology and related services by emphasizing transparency and reliability. This can be achieved through clear communication about data privacy and security measures, providing reliable and accurate information about the technology, and ensuring consistent and dependable user experiences. By instilling trust in users, their performance expectancy can be positively influenced. Additionally, showcasing success stories and testimonials from early adopters can also enhance trust in VR technology and increase Performance Expectancy.

  • Raise Awareness: As Personal Innovativeness positively affects Performance Expectancy, it is essential to educate potential users about the benefits and applications of VR technology in tourism. Conducting awareness campaigns, organizing VR demonstrations at tourist destinations, and collaborating with local tour operators can help raise awareness and generate interest among tourists. To maximize Performance Expectancy, it is essential to deliver adequate support and education to users. Managers should offer comprehensive training programs, user guides, and technical support to ensure that users feel competent and confident in using VR tools. This will help address any barriers or challenges that users may face and enhance their performance expectations.

  • Offer Superior VR Experiences: Since Performance Expectancy is directly influenced by Personal Innovativeness and Trust Expectancy, tourism businesses should focus on delivering high-quality and engaging VR experiences. Investing in cutting-edge VR technology, creating captivating content, and ensuring smooth interactions can lead to positive user perceptions and stronger intentions to use VR tools.

  • Foster positive user experiences: Managers should prioritize creating positive user experiences with the VR technology. This includes offering intuitive user interfaces, providing comprehensive user support, and continuously improving the technology based on user feedback. By enhancing user satisfaction and trust in the technology, performance expectancy can be strengthened. Providing a seamless and enjoyable user experience is crucial in building trust and increasing performance expectancy. Managers should focus on optimizing the usability, functionality, and overall quality of the VR technology. Incorporating user-centered design principles and conducting usability testing can help identify areas for improvement and ensure that users have positive interactions with the technology.

  • Cultivate a trustworthy online environment: In the context of online virtual communities or websites, managers should create a trustworthy environment where users feel safe and confident to engage. This can be achieved by implementing security measures, verifying user-generated content, and fostering a positive and respectful community culture. By promoting trustworthiness, users' performance expectancy in terms of visiting websites or participating in online communities can be enhanced.

  • Cultivate a reliable and credible image: Managers in tourism industry should actively work towards establishing their organization as a trusted authority in the VR tourism domain. This can be accomplished through partnerships with reputable VR technology providers, certifications, and industry recognition. By associating the organization with reliability and credibility, trust expectancy can be positively influenced, leading to higher performance expectations.

  • Establish credibility through testimonials and endorsements: Managers can enhance trust expectancy by showcasing testimonials and endorsements from satisfied users or industry experts. This can help potential users gain confidence in the VR technology and increase their performance expectancy. Utilizing social proof and leveraging influential individuals or organizations can be effective strategies in building trust.

  • Continuously monitor and address trust-related concerns: It is crucial for managers to actively monitor and address any trust-related concerns or issues that users may have. This involves promptly responding to user inquiries, addressing privacy and security vulnerabilities, and being transparent about any changes or updates to the technology. By demonstrating a commitment to user trust and actively addressing concerns, performance expectancy can be positively influenced.

  • Maintain a user-centered approach: Managers should prioritize user satisfaction and actively engage with users to understand their needs and expectations. Regularly seeking user feedback and implementing improvements based on their suggestions can help build trust and enhance performance expectations. Creating a feedback loop and addressing user concerns in a timely manner will foster trust and positively impact the technology acceptance process.

  • Promote Personal Innovativeness: As Personal Innovativeness plays a significant role in shaping users' expectations regarding VR technology's performance, tourism businesses and VR service providers should focus on promoting a culture of innovation and openness to new technologies among their employees and customers. Offering training and workshops on VR technology and its benefits can help individuals become more comfortable and excited about using VR tools in the tourism context.

  • User Training and Support: Offering training sessions and user support for tourists who are less familiar with VR technology can boost their confidence in using it. Providing on-site assistance and user-friendly guides during VR experiences can improve user satisfaction and foster positive word-of-mouth. Managers should provide comprehensive training sessions on how to effectively use VR tools and highlight the potential benefits and value they bring to the Tunisian tourism industry. By enhancing users' knowledge and skills, organizations can boost their confidence and Performance Expectancy in utilizing VR technology.

  • Monitor and address user feedback: Managers should actively seek feedback from users, conduct user surveys, and monitor performance metrics to identify any gaps or issues that may affect users' trust or Personal Innovativeness. Based on this feedback, corrective actions can be taken, such as refining the VR tools, addressing user concerns, and implementing updates or enhancements to ensure a positive user experience. Taking into account user suggestions and addressing any issues promptly will contribute to enhancing Performance Expectancy and overall user satisfaction.

  • Foster collaboration and knowledge sharing: Encouraging collaboration and knowledge sharing among users can significantly enhance Performance Expectancy. Managers can facilitate this by creating online communities or forums where users can exchange experiences, best practices, and tips for using VR tools in the Tunisian tourism context. By promoting collaboration, users can learn from each other and develop higher performance expectations.

On the other hand, the research findings reveal a significant relationship between higher levels of perceived value (PV) among users and stronger performance expectancy and effort expectancy within the context of virtual reality (VR) usage. These findings have significant managerial implications for the tourism industry. Organizations should concentrate on improving the perceived value of VR experiences by proposing compelling and engaging content, seamless user interfaces, and personalized interactions. By emphasizing the benefits and value that users can derive from VR technology, such as immersive storytelling, virtual tours of popular destinations, or interactive cultural experiences, managers can effectively increase users' performance expectancy and their willingness to invest the effort required to engage with VR. Additionally, providing user-friendly interfaces and clear instructions can further strengthen users' effort expectancy and facilitate their acceptance and usage of virtual reality in the tourism sector.

Furthermore, based on the finding Effort Expectancy (EE) and Perceived Value (PV) exert a counteractive impact on hedonic motivation in the context of applying VR tools to Tunisian tourism, several managerial implications and corrective actions can be proposed in this sens.

Firstly, it is crucial for managers and practitioners to focus on minimizing the perceived effort associated with using VR tools in the tourism context. This can be achieved by enhancing the usability and user-friendliness of the VR systems, providing clear instructions and guidance, and simplifying the interaction processes. By reducing the perceived effort, users are more inclined to encounter elevated levels of hedonic motivation, leading to increased acceptance and intention to use VR tools in the tourism industry. Secondly, addressing the perceived value of VR tools is essential to enhance hedonic motivation. Managers should make efforts to effectively communicate and highlight the unique benefits and value proposition of using VR in the tourism context. This can be achieved through effective marketing and promotion strategies that emphasize the immersive and enjoyable experiences offered by VR technology. Additionally, incorporating features and content that are in harmony with the preferences and interests of the target audience can enhance the perceived value and ultimately increase hedonic motivation. Furthermore, continuous monitoring and evaluation of user feedback and satisfaction regarding both effort expectancy and perceived value are crucial. This can be done through surveys, user testing, and feedback mechanisms to identify areas of improvement and make necessary adjustments to enhance hedonic motivation. Additionally, conducting user training and providing adequate support and assistance can help users overcome any perceived challenges or barriers related to effort expectancy, thereby positively influencing hedonic motivation.

In summary, to leverage hedonic motivation and promote the successful adoption of VR tools in Tunisian tourism, managers should focus on minimizing effort expectancy, enhancing perceived value, and actively engaging with users to ensure a positive and enjoyable VR experience. By addressing these factors, tourism organizations can create immersive and compelling VR experiences that attract and engage tourists, leading to improved customer satisfaction and loyalty.

In addition, the result indicating that Effort Expectancy (EE) negatively impacts Behavioral Intention (BI) in the context of applying VR tools to Tunisian tourism carries important managerial implications. Understanding the relationship between these variables can help tourism stakeholders identify potential challenges and take corrective actions to improve user acceptance and adoption of VR technology.

Primarily, it is crucial for organizations to focus on reducing the perceived effort required to use VR tools in the tourism context. This can be accomplished by offering interfaces that are user-friendly, intuitive navigation systems, and clear instructions on how to operate the VR technology. By simplifying the user experience and minimizing the learning curve, organizations can enhance users' perceptions of ease of use, which, in turn, can positively impact their intention to use VR. Additionally, organizations should invest in comprehensive training programs and support services to assist users in effectively utilizing VR tools. By offering training sessions, workshops, or online tutorials, users can gain the required skills and knowledge to utilize VR technology with confidence. Providing dedicated customer support channels and responsive assistance can also address any concerns or difficulties users may encounter, thereby reducing perceived effort and increasing their intention to use VR. Moreover, organizations should continuously monitor and evaluate the usability of VR tools in the tourism context. Conducting user testing, gathering feedback, and implementing iterative design improvements can help identify and address any usability issues that contribute to a high perceived effort. By incorporating user-centered design principles and continuously optimizing the user experience, organizations can enhance user satisfaction and increase the likelihood of positive behavioral intentions towards VR technology.

6 Conclusion

In this research, it is aimed to suggest and validate a contextual model specifically tailored for virtual reality (VR) implementations, building upon the well-established UTAUT2 model, and introducing new contextual constructs. The primary objective of this study was to gain a profounder understanding of the behavioral intention to use VR technology in the context of Tunisian Cultural Heritage sites.

The analysis of the model yielded insights that the users' intention to use VR may be effectively gauged by evaluating their perceptions of performance expectancy, perceived value, and hedonic motivation. Furthermore, we identified noteworthy indirect influences of personal innovativeness and trust expectancy on performance expectancy. Conversely, we observed that effort expectancy negatively impacted hedonic motivation for VR technology adoption. To further enrich the understanding of hedonic motivation, we reintroduced the third factor of dominance to complete the aspects of pleasure and enjoyment. The outcomes of this study indicate that the hypothesis positing a positive link between social influence and the intention to use VR tools in the Tunisian tourism context was not substantiated.

To confirm our proposed model and assess users' behavioral intention to use VR, we collected data from participants visiting archaeological sites and potential future visitors through various online platforms. By incorporating end-user validation and ensuring participant diversity, we aimed to enhance the ecological validity of our findings and extend the applicability of the model beyond the Cultural Heritage scenario. Our validated questionnaire, available in the Supplementary Materials section, serves as a valuable tool for predicting users' behavioral intention to use VR in the framework of Tunisian cultural heritage.

As VR continues to gain popularity and finds applications in diverse domains, its success hinges on various factors, including user acceptance. We believe that our proposed model, along with the accompanying questionnaire, can be generalized and operated to other areas can be extended and implemented in diverse domains. where VR emerges as a new solution. By accurately assessing users' adoption and intention to use VR tools, organizations can better predict and enhance the success of VR implementations across different contexts.

Furthermore, the widespread popularity of VR opens up opportunities for its implementation through a wide range of industries and sectors. While the success of VR technology depends on various factors specific to each context, understanding and predicting end-users' acceptance is crucial. Our study contributes to this by providing a validated model and questionnaire specifically tailored for the Tunisian tourism industry and Cultural Heritage sites.

By employing the proposed model and utilizing the questionnaire, organizations in the Tunisian tourism sector can gain valuable insights into users' behavioral intentions to use VR thereby informing strategic planning and facilitating effective integration of this innovative technology. This understanding can inform strategic decision-making, resource allocation, and the development of effective marketing and communication strategies to promote VR experiences at Cultural Heritage sites.

To ensure the effective implementation of VR tools in Tunisian tourism, several managerial implications and corrective actions was recommended. By considering these managerial implications and implementing the recommended corrective actions, VR technology can be effectively harnessed to improve and develop the tourist experience in Tunisian Cultural Heritage sites. This, in turn, can lead to increased visitor engagement, satisfaction, and loyalty, influencing the overall success of the Tunisian tourism industry.

In conclusion, this research presents a significant contribution with far-reaching implications for society, the economy, and cultural preservation, showcasing the transformative potential of Virtual Reality (VR) within cultural heritage sites. By harnessing VR technology, this study enhances visitor experiences, transcending physical limitations and facilitating a deeper appreciation and understanding of cultural heritage. Moreover, the study underscores the pivotal role of VR in destination marketing, effectively showcasing Tunisia's unique attractions to a global audience and stimulating interest among potential travelers. Through its comprehensive analysis of persuasive factors and user behavior, this study offers a reliable framework for evaluating VR adoption, with implications extending beyond cultural heritage sites to various sectors. By providing actionable recommendations for managerial intervention, it paves the way for enhanced tourist experiences and more efficient utilization of VR technology. Particularly for Tunisia, a North African developing country heavily reliant on tourism, this research underscores the potential of VR to bolster the economy and preserve cultural heritage, thus fostering sustainable growth and development in the region.