Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

In search of trustworthy information: a qualitative study of the search behavior of people with dyslexia in Norway

  • Long Paper
  • Published:
Universal Access in the Information Society Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Access to trustworthy information is a premise for participation in a democratic society. However, locating useful and valid information may not be a straightforward task for all users. This study reports the results from a qualitative study of how people with dyslexia experience online information searching. The purpose is to better understand the search behavior of users with dyslexia and develop more accessible user interfaces. A total of eight adults with dyslexia were interviewed using a semi-structured interview guide. The interviews were recorded, transcribed and categorized. The participants had high information literacy skills and were very reflected upon various issues related to evaluating results. Moreover, they preferred sources such as well-reputed online encyclopedias, which did not require extensive inspection of results. However, due to a low tolerance for spelling errors in several Norwegian search systems, the participants had to rely on Google, a system that required more effort on evaluating results. Assessing sources was considered to be demanding, due to reduced reading speed, decoding errors and impaired short-term memory capacity caused by the dyslexia. Consequently, the participants often used sources retrieved by Google without proper evaluation, fully aware that the information might not be trustworthy. All search systems should implement a high tolerance for spelling errors to ensure the accessibility for people with reading and writing impairments. Moreover, there is a need to rethink result list design. Further, more work is needed to develop search aids and voice searching for small languages, such as Norwegian.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Turetken, O., Sharda, R.: Clustering-based visual interfaces for presentation of web search results: an empirical investigation. Inf. Syst. Front. 7(3), 273–297 (2005)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  2. Hariri, N.: Relevance ranking on Google: are top ranked results really considered more relevant by the users? Online Inf. Rev. 35(4), 598–610 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1108/14684521111161954

    Article  Google Scholar 

  3. Granka, L.A., Joachims, T., Gay, G.: Eye-tracking analysis of user behavior in WWW search. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the 27th annual international ACM SIGIR conference on Research and development in information retrieval, Sheffield, United Kingdom (2004)

  4. Giles, J.: Internet encyclopaedias go head to head. Nature 438(7070), 900–901 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1038/438900a

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Nergård-Nilssen, T., Hulme, C.: Developmental dyslexia in adults: behavioural manifestations and cognitive correlates. Dyslexia 20(3), 191–207 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1002/dys.1477

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. Perez, T.M., Poncelet, M., Salmon, E., Majerus, S.: Functional alterations in order short-term memory networks in adults with dyslexia. Dev. Neuropsychol. 40(7–8), 407–429 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1080/87565641.2016.1153098

    Article  Google Scholar 

  7. Lervåg, A., Hulme, C.: Rapid automatized naming (RAN) taps a mechanism that places constraints on the development of early reading fluency. Psychol. Sci. 20(8), 1040–1048 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02405.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. Berget, G., Sandnes, F.E.: Searching databases without query-building aids: Implications for dyslexic users. Inf. Res. 20(4), 689 (2015)

    Google Scholar 

  9. Kvikne, B., Berget, G.: When trustworthy information becomes inaccessible: the search behaviour of users with dyslexia in an online encyclopedia. Stud. Health Technol. Inf. 256, 793–801 (2018)

    Google Scholar 

  10. Li, A.Q., Sbattella, L., Tedesco, R.: PoliSpell: An adaptive spellchecker and predictor for people with dyslexia. In: Carberry, S., Weibelzahl, S., Micarelli, A., Semeraro, G. (eds.) User Modeling, Adaptation, and Personalization, pp. 302–309. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg (2013)

    Google Scholar 

  11. Berget, G., Sandnes, F.E.: Do autocomplete functions reduce the impact of dyslexia on information-searching behavior? The case of Google. J. Assoc. Inf. Sci. Technol. 67(10), 2320–2328 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1002/asi.23572

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Morris, M.R., Fourney, A., Ali, A., Vonessen, L.: Understanding the needs of searchers with dyslexia. Paper presented at the CHI 2018, Montreal, QB, Canada, April 21–26, 2018 (2018)

  13. MacFarlane, A., Al-Wabil, A., Marshall, C.R., Albrair, A., Jones, S.A., Zaphiris, P.: The effect of dyslexia on information retrieval: a pilot study. J. Doc. 66(3), 307–326 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1108/00220411011038421

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. MacFarlane, A., Albrair, A., Marshall, C.R., Buchanan, G.: Phonological working memory impacts on information searching: An investigation of dyslexia. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the 4th Information Interaction in Context Symposium, Nijmegen, The Netherlands (2012)

  15. Choi, W., Stvilia, B.: Web credibility assessment: conceptualization, operationalization, variability, and models. J. Assoc. Inf. Sci. Technol. 66(12), 2399–2414 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1002/asi.23543

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Helland, T., Kaasa, R.: Dyslexia in English as a second language. Dyslexia 11(1), 41–60 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1002/dys.286

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. Berendt, B., Kralisch, A.: A user-centric approach to identifying best deployment strategies for language tools: the impact of content and access language on Web user behaviour and attitudes. Inf. Retrieval 12(3), 380 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10791-008-9086-4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Marlow, J., Clough, P., Recuero, J.C., Artiles, J.: Exploring the effects of language skills on multilingual web search. In: Macdonald, C., Ounis, I., Plachouras, V., Ruthven, I., White, R.W. (eds.) Advances in Information Retrieval, pp. 126–137. Springer, Berlin (2008)

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  19. Young, A.L., Komlodi, A., Rózsa, G., Chu, P.: Evaluating the credibility of english web sources as a foreign-language searcher. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the 79th ASIS&T Annual Meeting: Creating Knowledge, Enhancing Lives through Information & Technology, Copenhagen, Denmark (2016)

  20. McCarthy, J.E., Swierenga, S.J.: What we know about dyslexia and Web accessibility: a research review. Univ. Access Inf. Soc. 9(2), 147–152 (2010)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Kyle, F.E., Cain, K.: A Comparison of deaf and hearing children’s reading comprehension profiles. Top. Lang. Disord. 35(2), 144–156 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1097/TLD.0000000000000053

    Article  Google Scholar 

  22. Peterson, R.L., Pennington, B.F.: Developmental dyslexia. Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 11(1), 283–307 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032814-112842

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Carawan, L.W., Nalavany, B.A., Jenkins, C.: Emotional experience with dyslexia and self-esteem: the protective role of perceived family support in late adulthood. Aging Ment. Health 20(3), 284–294 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2015.1008984

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Berget, G., Fagernes, S.: “I’m not stupid”—Attitudes towards adaptation among people with dyslexia. In: Kurosu, M. (ed.) Human-Computer Interaction. Theories, Methods, and Human Issues, pp. 237–247. Springer, Cham (2018)

    Google Scholar 

  25. Pino, M., Mortari, L.: The inclusion of students with dyslexia in higher education: a systematic review using narrative synthesis. Dyslexia 20(4), 346–369 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1002/dys.1484

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. Riddick, B.: Students and dyslexia: growing up with a specific learning difficulty. Whurr, London (1997)

    Google Scholar 

  27. Mortimore, T., Crozier, W.R.: Dyslexia and difficulties with study skills in higher education. Stud. High. Educ. 31(2), 235–251 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1080/03075070600572173

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. MacFarlane, A., Buchanan, G., Al-Wabil, A., Andrienko, G., Andrienko, N.: Visual analysis of dyslexia on search. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the 2017 Conference on Conference Human Information Interaction and Retrieval, Oslo, Norway (2017)

  29. Fourney, A., Morris, M.R., Ali, A., Vonessen, L.: Assessing the readability of web search results for searchers with dyslexia. Paper presented at the The 41st International ACM SIGIR Conference on Research & Development in Information Retrieval, Ann Arbor, MI, USA (2018)

  30. Cole, L., MacFarlane, A., Buchanan, G.: Does dyslexia present barriers to information literacy in an online environment? A pilot study. Libr. Inf. Res. 40(123), 24–46 (2016)

    Google Scholar 

  31. Berget, G., Mulvey, F., Sandnes, F.E.: Is visual content in textual search interfaces beneficial to dyslexic users? Int. J. Hum Comput. Stud. 92–93, 17–29 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhcs.2016.04.006

    Article  Google Scholar 

  32. González, L.F.: Combining visual and textual languages for dyslexia. Paper presented at the Proceedings Companion of the 2017 ACM SIGPLAN International Conference on Systems, Programming, Languages, and Applications: Software for Humanity, Vancouver, BC, Canada (2017)

  33. Wang, X.J., Zhang, L., Li, X., Ma, W.Y.: Annotating images by mining image search results. IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell. 30(11), 1919–1932 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1109/TPAMI.2008.127

    Article  Google Scholar 

  34. Trippas, J.R., Spina, D., Cavedon, L., Sanderson, M.: How do people interact in conversational speech-only search tasks: A preliminary analysis. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the 2017 Conference on Conference Human Information Interaction and Retrieval, Oslo, Norway (2017)

  35. Ouilhet, H.: Google Sky Map: Using your phone as an interface. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the 12th international conference on Human computer interaction with mobile devices and services, Lisbon, Portugal (2010)

  36. Pickens, J., Golovchinsky, G., Shah, C., Qvarfordt, P., Back, M.: Algorithmic mediation for collaborative exploratory search. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the 31st annual international ACM SIGIR conference on Research and development in information retrieval, Singapore, Singapore (2008)

  37. Schwarz, J., Morris, M.: Augmenting web pages and search results to support credibility assessment. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Vancouver, BC, Canada (2011)

  38. Sahib, N.G., Tombros, A., Stockman, T.: A comparative analysis of the information-seeking behavior of visually impaired and sighted searchers. J. Am. Soc. Inf. Sci. Technol. 63(2), 377–391 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1002/asi.21696

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Bozdag, E., van den Hoven, J.: Breaking the filter bubble: democracy and design. Ethics Inf. Technol. 17(4), 249–265 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10676-015-9380-y

    Article  Google Scholar 

  40. Miller, B., Record, I.: Responsible epistemic technologies: a social-epistemological analysis of autocompleted web search. New Media Soc. 19(12), 1945–1963 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444816644805

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. Heersmink, R.: A virtue epistemology of the internet: search engines, intellectual virtues and education. Soc. Epistemol. 32(1), 1–12 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1080/02691728.2017.1383530

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. Eshet, Y.: Digital literacy: a conceptual framework for survival skills in the digital era. J. Educ. Multimedia Hypermedia 13(1), 93–106 (2004)

    Google Scholar 

  43. Kingsley, K., Galbraith, G.M., Herring, M., Stowers, E., Stewart, T., Kingsley, K.V.: Why not just Google it? An assessment of information literacy skills in a biomedical science curriculum. BMC Med. Educ. 11(1), 17 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6920-11-17

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. Judd, T., Kennedy, G.: Expediency-based practice? Medical students’ reliance on Google and Wikipedia for biomedical inquiries. Br. J. Edu. Technol. 42(2), 351–360 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8535.2009.01019.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. Holman, L.: Millennial students’ mental models of search: implications for academic librarians and database developers. J. Acad. Librariansh. 37(1), 19–27 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acalib.2010.10.003

    Article  Google Scholar 

  46. Kupferberg, N., Jones Hartel, L.: Evaluation of five full-text drug databases by pharmacy students, faculty, and librarians: do the groups agree? J. Med. Libr. Assoc. JMLA 92(1), 66–71 (2004)

    Google Scholar 

  47. Hinman, L.M.: Searching ethics: The role of search engines in the construction and distribution of knowledge. In: Spink, A., Zimmer, M. (eds.) Web Search: Multidisciplinary Perspectives, pp. 67–76. Springer, Heidelberg (2008)

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  48. Hinman, L.M.: Esse est indicato in Google: ethical and political issues in search engines. Int. Rev. Inf. Ethics 3(6), 19–25 (2005)

    Google Scholar 

  49. Berget, G.: Search and find?: An accessibility study of dyslexia and information retrieval. University of Oslo, Oslo (2016)

    Google Scholar 

  50. De Santana, V.F., de Oliveira, R., Almeida, L.D.A., Baranauskas, M.C.C.: Web accessibility and people with dyslexia: a survey on techniques and guidelines. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the International Cross-Disciplinary Conference on Web Accessibility, Lyon, France (2012)

  51. British Dyslexia Association (n.d.) Dyslexia style guide. http://www.bdadyslexia.org.uk/common/ckeditor/filemanager/userfiles/About_Us/policies/Dyslexia_Style_Guide.pdf. Accessed 28 Mar 2018

  52. Xindong, W., Huanhuan, C., Gongqing, W., Jun, L., Qinghua, Z., Xiaofeng, H., Aoying, Z., Zhong-Qiu, Z., Bifang, W., Ming, G., Yang, L., Qiping, Z., Shichao, Z., Ruqian, L., Nanning, Z.: Knowledge engineering with big data. IEEE Intell. Syst. 30(5), 46–55 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1109/MIS.2015.56

    Article  Google Scholar 

  53. W3C.: Web content accessibility guidelines (WCAG) 2.1. W3C. http://www.w3.org/TR/WCAG21 (2018). Accessed 13 Aug 2018

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful to the participants for their valuable time.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Archivistics, Library and Information Science, OsloMet – Oslo Metropolitan University, Postboks 4 St. Olav plass, 0130, Oslo, Norway

    Birgit Kvikne & Gerd Berget

Authors
  1. Birgit Kvikne
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Gerd Berget
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Gerd Berget.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Appendix: Interview guide (originally in Norwegian)

Appendix: Interview guide (originally in Norwegian)

  1. 1.

    Introduction

    • Introduction of the person conducting the interview

    • Thank the person for participating and explain procedure and ethical requirements, storing and handling of data, etc.

    • Ask if anything is unclear, or the person has any further questions before the interview is recorded.

  2. 2.

    Background information:

    • Gender, age, education, occupation, dyslexia

  3. 3.

    Topic: General use of information sources and “tools”

    • Do you have any preferences regarding search engine? If yes, which one(s)?

    • Which web sites do you consider trustworthy sources for factual knowledge? (ask about examples for specific topics if necessary, for instance Hungary, the brain and ticks)

    • Can you explain how you search when looking for information about a specific topic?

    • What would an optimal search system look like?

    • Do you use autocorrect while inputting queries if the system has that functionality?

    • Do you look at the suggestions while inputting queries?

    • Do you pay attention to the red line underneath potentially misspelled query terms?

  4. 4.

    Topic: The result list

    • What do you do if you retrieve no relevant results? (follow up: how does that feel?)

    • Have you ever given up searching altogether?

    • What is your experience with the autocomplete? Has autocomplete ever sent you off track?

    • What do you do when you are unsure about the spelling of a query term?

    • What are the biggest challenges when searching for information? How do you experience that?

    • What does the ideal result list look like?

  5. 5.

    Trustworthiness

    • If none of the results are familiar to you, how do you proceed in assessing the trustworthiness? (time spent, number of results that are assessed, consider spelling of words, etc.)

    • Do you have any other comments that you want to add that you think is relevant in this context?

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Kvikne, B., Berget, G. In search of trustworthy information: a qualitative study of the search behavior of people with dyslexia in Norway. Univ Access Inf Soc 20, 1–12 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10209-019-00703-9

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10209-019-00703-9

Keywords

Search

Navigation