Abstract
Massive Open Online Courses (MOOC) made the promise of offering unrestrictive and unselective educational opportunities to learners worldwide. However, the specific learning environment of the MOOC requires high autonomy and flexibility in learning. MOOC learners are extremely diverse in terms of their age, qualifications, background and in the ability of self-regulating their learning. In this study, we aimed at having a better understanding of learners’ readiness for self-determined learning in a Language MOOC context. Our objective was to select and characterize highly self-determined learners and to examine the relationship between self-determined learning characteristics of this specific learner cohort. We applied a battery of instruments measuring self-directed learning readiness, self-reflection and insight, self-efficacy and internet skills. Highly self-determined learners were selected by applying criteria based on the reported level of confidence in learners’ skills on the agreement scales. The Pearson correlation was used to examine the relationship between self-directed learning readiness and self-reflection and insight, self-efficacy and internet skills. Our results showed that only 4.31% of the participants fulfilled our established criteria. The correlation tests revealed that there are significant correlations among the self-determined learning elements: we found significant positive correlation between, self-directed learning readiness and insight, self-efficacy, information navigation internet skill ; between desire for learning and insight, engagement in reflection; desire for learning and need for reflection, information navigation; between self-management and mobile internet skill;and between self-control and self-efficacy. Based on the results, implications and suggestion for MOOC design are provided.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
The idea of self-directed learning can be led back to andragogy. Knowles encouraged the concept of andragogy and described self-directed learning (Knowles 1970).
This continuum indicates a development framework for thinking about learning and teaching strategies rather than a linear progression of learners from pedagogy to heutagogy (Garnett and O’Beirne 2013).
We recognize that a full validation of heutagogy as a theory of distance education is still pending in the field (Blaschke 2012) .
Two participants did not provide data on age, country of origin, employment status and didn’t respond to the question whether this course was their first MOOC or not.
Items with higher factor loadings on other factors than their expected factor, and with loadings lower than .30 on their expected factor were dropped from the scale. These criteria were applied for each individual scale and subscale used in this study.
References
Antonaci, A., Klemke, R., Stracke, C. M., & Specht, M. (2017). Gamification in MOOCs to enhance users’ goal achievement. In IEEE global engineering education conference, EDUCON (pp. 1654–1662). Athens, Greece: IEEE Computer Society. https://doi.org/10.1109/EDUCON.2017.7943070.
Agonács, N. & Matos, J.F. 2017, Perspectives on MOOCs as heutagogy instances, INTED2017 Conference Proceedings, (pp. 6655–64). Valencia, Spain: IATED. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.21125/inted.2017.1538
Agonács, N. & Matos, J.F. 2019, Heutagogy and self-determined learning: A review of the published literature on the application and implementation of the theory, Open Learning: The Journal of Open, Distance and e-Learning , 1–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02680513.2018.1562329
Authors (2017).
Authors (2019).
Baggaley, J. (2013). MOOC rampant. Distance Education, 34(3), 368–378. https://doi.org/10.1080/01587919.2013.835768.
Basereh, N., & Pishkar, K. (2016). Self-Directed Learning and Self-Efficacy Belief among Iranian EFL Learners at the advanced Level of Language Proficiency. Journal of Applied Linguistics and Language Research, 3(1), 232–240. Retrieved from http://www.jallr.com/index.php/JALLR/article/view/268/pdf268. Accessed 26 June 2019.
Baturay, M. H. (2015). An overview of the world of MOOCs. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 174, 427–433. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.01.685.
Bernacki, M. L., Aguilar, A. C., & Byrnes, J. P. (2011). Self-regulated learning and technology-enhanced learning environments: An opportunity propensity analysis. In G. Dettori & D. Persico (Eds.), Fostering self-regulated learning through ICT (pp. 1–26). Hershey, PA: IGI Global. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-61692-901-5.ch001.
Blaschke, L. M. (2012). Heutagogy and lifelong learning: A review of heutagogical practice and self-determined learning. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 13(1), 56–71. https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2014.911260.
Blaschke, L. M., & Hase, S. (2016). Heutagogy: A holistic framework for creating twenty-first-century self-determined learners. In B. Gros, Kinshuk, & M. Maina (Eds.), The Future of Ubiquitous Learning: Learning Designs for Emerging Pedagogies (pp. 25–40). Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-47724-3_2.
Candy, P. C. (1991). Self-direction for lifelong learning. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Chen, G., & Gully, S. (2001). Validation of a new general self-efficacy scale. Organizational Research Methods, 4(1), 62–83. https://doi.org/10.1177/109442810141004.
Creswell, J. W., & Clark, V. L. P. (2011). Designing and conducting mixed methods research. Los Angeles, California, USA: SAGE Publications, Inc.
Deng, R., Benckendorff, P., & Gannaway, D. (2019). Progress and new directions for teaching and learning in MOOCs. Computers in Education, 129(2019, 48–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2018.10.019.
Field, L. (1989). Guglielmino’s self-directed learning readiness scale: Should it continue to be used? Adult Education Quarterly, 42(2), 100–103. https://doi.org/10.1177/0001848191041002004.
Fisher, M. J., & King, J. (2010). The self-directed learning readiness scale for nursing education revisited: A confirmatory factor analysis. Nurse Education Today, 30(1), 44–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2009.05.020.
Fisher, M., King, J., & Tague, G. (2001). Development of a self-directed learning readiness scale for nursing education. Nurse Education Today, 21(7), 516–525. https://doi.org/10.1054/nedt.2001.0589.
Garnett, F., & O’Beirne, R. (2013). Putting heutagogy into learning. In S. Hase & C. Kenyon (Eds.), Self-determined learning: Heutagogy in action (pp. 131–143). London: Bloomsbury Academic. https://doi.org/10.5040/9781472553232.ch-010.
Grant, A. M., Franklin, J., & Langford, P. (2002). The self-reflection and insight scale: A new measure of private self-consciousness. Social Behavior and Personality, 30(8), 821–835. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2002.30.8.821.
Guglielmino, L. M. (1977). Development of the self-directed learning readiness scale. University of Georgia.
Hadwin, A. F., Winne, P. H., Stockley, D. B., Nesbit, J. C., & Woszczyna, C. (2001). Context moderates students’ self-reports about how they study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93(3), 477–487. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.93.3.477.
Hase, S., & Kenyon, C. (2000). From andragogy to heutagogy. UltiBase, 1–7. Retrieved from http://www.psy.gla.ac.uk/~steve/pr/Heutagogy.html. Accessed 26 September 2016.
Hase, S., & Kenyon, C. (2013). The nature of learning. In S. Hase & C. Kenyon (Eds.), Self-determined learning: Heutagogy in action (pp. 19–35). London: Bloomsbury Academic. https://doi.org/10.5040/9781472553232.ch-003
Hill, A. J. (2015). Social learning in massive open online courses: An analysis of pedagogical implications and students’ Learning Experiences. University of California, Los Angeles.
Hodges, C. B. (2016). The development of learner self-efficacy in MOOCs. In Proceedings of the 2016 GlobalLearn conference. Limerick, Ireland. Retrieved from https://www.aace.org/conf/glearn/. Accessed 24 June 2019.
Hood, N., Littlejohn, A., & Milligan, C. (2015). Context counts: How learners’ contexts influence learning in a MOOC. Computers in Education, 91(2015), 83–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2015.10.019.
Klimkowski, K. (2012). Non-formal elements in academic translator education. Academic Journal of Modern Philology, 1(2000), 33–44.
Knowles, M. A. (1970). The modern practice of adult education. From pedagogy to andragogy. New York: Association Press.
Lee, D., Watson, S. L., & Watson, W. R. (2019). Systematic literature review on self-regulated learning in massive open online courses. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 35(1), 28–42. https://doi.org/10.14742/ajet.3749.
Littlejohn, A., Hood, N., Milligan, C., & Mustain, P. (2016). Learning in MOOCs: Motivations and self-regulated learning in MOOCs. Internet and Higher Education, 29, 40–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2015.12.003.
Loyens, S. M. M., Magda, J., & Rikers, R. M. J. P. (2008). Self-directed learning in problem-based learning and its relationships with self-regulated learning. Educational Psychology Review, 20(4), 411–427. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-008-9082-7.
Luckin, R., Clark, W., Garnett, F., Whitworth, A., Akass, J., Cook, J., Day, P., Ecclesfield, N., Hamilton, T., & Robertson, J. (2010). Learner-generated contexts: A framework to support the effective use of Technology for Learning. In M. J. W. Lee & C. McLoughlin (Eds.), Web 2.0-based e-learning: Applying social informatics for tertiary teaching (pp. 70–84). Hershey, PA, USA: IGI Global. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-60566-294-7.ch004.
Mac Callum, K., Jeffery, L., & Kinshuk. (2015). Heutagogial Approaches in the Understanding and Modelling the Adoption of Mobile Learning. In T. H. Brown & H. J. van der Merwe (Eds.), The Mobile Learning Voyage - From Small Ripples to Massive Open Waters. mLearn 2015. Communications in Computer and Information Science, vol 560 (pp. 330–342). Cham: Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-25684-9_24
McAuley, A., Stewart, B., Siemens, G., & Cormier, D. (2010). The MOOC model for digital practice. Massive open online courses: Digital ways of knowing and learning. Charlottetown, Canada. Retrieved from www.elearnspace.org/Articles/MOOC_Final.pdf. Accessed 06 June 2019.
Nielson, B. (2014). Learner-centered instruction in MOOCs. Your Training Edge. Retrieved from https://www.yourtrainingedge.com/learner-centered-instruction-in-moocs/
Pappano, L. (2012, November 14). The year of the MOOC. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2012/11/04/education/edlife/massive-open-online-courses-are-multiplying-at-a-rapid-pace.html
Reich, J., & Ruipérez-Valiente, J. A. (2019). The MOOC pivot. Science Education, 363(6423), 130–131. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aav7958.
Roberts, C., & Stark, P. (2008). Readiness for self-directed change in professional behaviours: Factorial validation of the self-reflection and insight scale. Medical Education, 42, 1054–1063. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2923.2008.03156.x.
Romero-Rodriguez, L. M., Ramirez-Montoya, M. S., & Gonzalez, J. R. V. (2019). Gamification in MOOCs: Engagement application test in energy sustainability courses. IEEE Access, 7(2), 32093–32101. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2019.2903230.
Saks, K., & Leijen, Ä. (2014). Distinguishing self-directed and self-regulated learning and measuring them in the E-learning context. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 112(2014, 190–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.1155.
Schmid, L., Manturuk, K., Simpkins, I., Goldwasser, M., & Whitfield, K. E. (2015). Fulfilling the promise: Do MOOCs reach the educationally underserved? Educational Media International, 52(2), 116–128. https://doi.org/10.1080/09523987.2015.1053288.
Shah, D. (2019, January 6). Year of MOOC-based degrees: A review of MOOC stats and trends in 2018. Class Central. Retrieved from https://www.classcentral.com/report/moocs-stats-and-trends-2018/
Sherer, M., Maddux, J. E., Mercandante, B., Prentice-Dunn, S., Jacobs, B., & Rogers, R. W. (1982). The self-efficacy scale: Construction and validation. Psychological Reports, 51, 663–671. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1982.51.2.663.
Siemens, G. (2002). What is learner-centered. Retrieved from http://www.elearnspace.org/blog/2002/10/11/what-is-learner-centered/.
Steffens, K. (2015). Competences, learning theories and MOOCs: Recent developments in lifelong learning. European Journal of Education, 50(1), 41–59. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejed.12102.
Stephenson, J. (1994). Capability and competence: Are they the same and does it matter? Capability, 1(1), 3–4.
Stich, A. E., & Reeves, T. D. (2017). Massive open online courses and underserved students in the United States. Internet and Higher Education, 32, 58–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2016.09.001.
Turan, M. B., & Koç, K. (2018). The impact of self-directed learning readiness on critical thinking and self-efficacy among the students of the School of Physical Education and Sports. International Journal of Higher Education, 7(6), 98. https://doi.org/10.5430/ijhe.v7n6p98.
van Deursen, A. J. A. M., Helsper, E. J., & Eynon, R. (2014). Measuring digital skills. From digital skills to tangible outcomes project report. Retrieved from www.oii.ox.ac.uk/research/projects/?id=112. Accessed 25 June 2019.
van Deursen, A. J. A. M., Helsper, E. J., & Eynon, R. (2016). Development and validation of the internet skills scale (ISS). Information, Communication & Society, 19(6), 804–823. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2015.1078834.
Waard, I. De. (2016). Self-directed learning of experienced adult online learners enrolled in FutureLearn MOOCs. The Open University, UK. Retrieved from http://oro.open.ac.uk/49604/. Accessed 7 August 2018.
Wong, J., Baars, M., Davis, D., Van Der Zee, T., Houben, G. J., & Paas, F. (2019). Supporting self-regulated learning in online learning environments and MOOCs: A systematic review. International Journal of Human Computer Interaction, 35(4–5), 356–373. https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2018.1543084.
Zawacki-Richter, O., Bozkurt, A., Alturki, U., & Aldraiweesh, A. (2018). What research says about MOOCs - an explorative content analysis. The International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 19(1), 242–259. https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v19i1.3356.
Acknowledgements and funding
This article reports research developed within the PhD Program Technology Enhanced Learning and Societal Challenges, funded by Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia, FCT I. P. – Portugal, under contracts # PD/00173/2014 and PD/BD/135196/2017. We thank Wellesley College for having ensured us the possibility to carry out our research in the Italian Language and Culture: Beginner course. We would like to give a special thanks to Wellesley’s Office of Institutional Research and the Office of the Provost for their collaboration.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation and data analysis were performed by Nikoletta Agonács. Wellesley College administered the questionnaire and provided disidentified data for analysis. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Nikoletta Agonács and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Agonács, N., Matos, J.F., Bartalesi-Graf, D. et al. Are you ready? Self-determined learning readiness of language MOOC learners. Educ Inf Technol 25, 1161–1179 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-019-10017-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-019-10017-1