Abstract
Advancement in virtual reality (VR) technology has enabled language learners to be engaged in immersive and interactive learning environments. Recent studies have revealed that the educational use of VR technology can improve students’ writing achievement, behavioral engagement, and cognitive engagement in learning. However, the factors contributing to these improvements are not fully understood. Writing programs that foster a positive writing self-concept is helpful for students’ development. In this study, adopting the self-determination theory as the theoretical lens, the affordances of VR contributing to students’ self-concept in descriptive writing (DW) were explored through a newly adapted survey. Secondary school students (n = 300) who attended a VR-supported writing course completed the survey that measured their responses to five related factors: (i) autonomous observation, (ii) relatedness, (iii) self-efficacy, (iv) satisfaction, and (v) writing self-concept. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were conducted to validate the five-factor survey measurements. The results indicated that the construct validity and reliability of the survey were acceptable. A structural equation model was constructed to investigate the hypothesized relationships of the factors contributing to the students’ writing self-concept. The results indicated self-efficacy and satisfaction directly predict students’ writing self-concept, and relatedness indirectly predicts writing self-concept. These findings reveal the underlying mechanism which could inform educators who are keen on promoting or harnessing VR-supported learning and teaching in writing education.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Explore related subjects
Discover the latest articles, news and stories from top researchers in related subjects.Data availability
Not applicable.
Code availability
Not applicable.
References
Akbari, E., Pilot, A., & Simons, P. R. J. (2015). Autonomy, competence, and relatedness in foreign language learning through Facebook. Computers in Human Behavior, 48, 126–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.01.036.
Badiozaman, I. F. B. A. (2015). Interrelated influence of internal and external factors on Malaysian learners’ self-concept in academic writing. The Journal of AsiaTEFL, 12(1), 79–115. Retrieved May 12, 2021, from https://www.asiatefl.org/main/download_pdf.php?i=398&c=1427708907.
Bong, M., & Skaalvik, E. M. (2003). Academic self-concept and self-efficacy: How different are they really? Educational Psychology Review, 15(1), 1–40. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021302408382.
Carter, K. (2015). Teaching descriptive writing through visualization and the five senses. English Teaching Forum, https://americanenglish.state.gov/english-teaching-forum.
Chan, C. K., Tsang, T. W., Chong, Y. M., Jong, S. Y. M., & Chen, M. Y. (2019). “ 運用虛擬實境提升初中生的中文寫作能力與人文素養 [Leveraging Virtual Reality to Promote Junior Secondary Students’ Chinese Writing Ability and Humanistic Literacy],” in 2019 International Conference on Game-Based Learning (ICGBL), Hangzhou, pp. 249–261. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.17922.09925.
Chang, S. C., Hsu, T. C., & Jong, M. S. Y. (2020a). Integration of the peer assessment approach with a virtual reality design system for learning earth science. Computers & Education, 146, 103758. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103758.
Chang, S. C., Hsu, T. C., Kuo, W. C., & Jong, M. S. Y. (2020b). Effects of applying a VR-based two-tier test strategy to promote elementary students’ learning performance in a Geology class. British Journal of Educational Technology, 51(1), 148–165. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12790.
Chao, C. N. G., Jong, S. Y. M., Chai, C. S., & Luk, T. H. (2020). “Development of the motivation and engagement in virtual reality chinese language learning questionnaire (MEVRCLQ),” in 2020 International Symposium on Educational Technology (ISET), Bangkok, pp. 67–72. https://doi.org/10.1109/ISET49818.2020.00024.
Chen, K. C., & Jang, S. J. (2010). Motivation in online learning: Testing a model of self-determination theory. Computers in Human Behavior, 26(4), 741–752. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2010.01.011.
Chen, Y., Smith, T. J., York, C. S., & Mayall, H. J. (2020). Google Earth virtual reality and expository writing for young English learners from a funds of knowledge perspective. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 33(1–2), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2018.1544151.
Chen, M., Chai, C. S., Jong, M. S. Y., & Jiang, M. Y. C. (2021). Teachers’ conceptions of teaching Chinese descriptive composition with interactive spherical video-based virtual reality. Frontiers in Psychology 12:591708. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.591708.
Chien, S. Y., Hwang, G. J., & Jong, M. S. Y. (2020). Effects of peer assessment within the context of spherical video-based virtual reality on EFL students’ English-speaking performance and learning perceptions. Computers & Education, 146, 103751. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103751.
Collier, D. R. (2010). Journey to becoming a writer: Review of research about children’s identities as writers. Language and Literacy, 12(1), 147–164. https://doi.org/10.20360/G2059M.
Cummins, J. (1998). Immersion education for the millennium: What have we learned from 30 years of research on second language immersion? In M. R. Childs & R. M. Bostwick (Eds.), Learning through two languages: Research and practice. Second Katoh Gakuen International Symposium on Immersion and Bilingual Education. (pp. 34–47). Katoh Gakuen.
Curriculum Development Council Hong Kong. (2017). Curriculum guide in Chinese Language Education – Key learning area curriculum guide (P1-S6). HKSARG Education Bureau, Retrieved May 12, 2021, from https://www.edb.gov.hk/attachment/tc/curriculum-development/kla/chi-edu/curriculum-documents.html.
Diseth, Å., Danielsen, A. G., & Samdal, O. (2012). A path analysis of basic need support, self-efficacy, achievement goals, life satisfaction and academic achievement level among secondary school students. Educational Psychology, 32(3), 335–354. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2012.657159.
Dolgunsöz, E., Yildirim, G., & Yildirim, S. (2018). The effect of virtual reality on EFL writing performance. Journal of Language and Linguistic Studies, 14(1), 278–292. https://jlls.org/index.php/jlls/article/view/869.
Ehm, J. H., Lindberg, S., & Hasselhorn, M. (2014). Reading, writing, and math self-concept in elementary school children: Influence of dimensional comparison processes. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 29(2), 277–294. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10212-013-0198-x.
Ellis, R. A. (2006). Investigating the quality of student approaches to using technology in experiences of learning through writing. Computers & Education, 46(4), 371–390. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2004.08.006.
Ellis, R. A., Taylor, C. E., & Drury, H. (2005). Evaluating writing instruction through an investigation of students’ experiences of learning through writing. Instructional Science, 33(1), 49–71. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-004-7686-y.
Fan, X., Miller, B. C., Park, K., Winward, B. W., Christensen, M., Grotevant, H. D., & Tai, R. H. (2006). An exploratory study about inaccuracy and invalidity in adolescent self-report surveys. Field Methods, 18(3), 223–244. https://doi.org/10.1177/152822X06289161.
Froiland, J. M., & Worrell, F. C. (2016). Intrinsic motivation, learning goals, engagement, and achievement in a diverse high school. Psychology in the Schools, 53(3), 321–336. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.21901.
Gardner, P. (2018). Writing and writer identity: The poor relation and the search for voice in ‘personal literacy.’ Literacy, 52(1), 11–19. https://doi.org/10.1111/lit.12119.
Gnambs, T., & Hanfstingl, B. (2016). The decline of academic motivation during adolescence: An accelerated longitudinal cohort analysis on the effect of psychological need satisfaction. Educational Psychology, 36(9), 1691–1705. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2015.1113236.
Graham, S., Capizzi, A., Harris, K. R., Hebert, M., & Murphy, P. (2014). Teaching writing to middle school students: A national survey. Reading and Writing: an Interdisciplinary Journal, 27(6), 1015–1042. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-013-9495-7.
Guay, F., Ratelle, C. F., Roy, A., & Litalien, D. (2010). Academic self-concept, autonomous academic motivation, and academic achievement: Mediating and additive effects. Learning and Individual Differences, 20(6), 644–653. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2010.08.001.
Hair, L. F., Hult, G. T. M., Ringle, C., & Sarstedt, M. (2017). A primer on partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM)”. (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks.
Hayes, A. F. (2009). Beyond Baron and Kenny: Statistical mediation analysis in the new millennium. Communication Monographs, 76, 408–420. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637750903310360.
Hew, K. F., & Cheung, W. S. (2010). Use of three-dimensional (3-D) immersive virtual worlds in K-12 and higher education settings: A review of the research. British Journal of Educational Technology, 41(1), 33–55. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8535.2008.00900.x.
Holliway, D. R. (2004). Through the eyes of my reader: A strategy for improving audience perspective in children’s descriptive writing. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 18(4), 334–349. https://doi.org/10.1080/02568540409595045.
Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority. (2015). Marking scheme report for the Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education Examination in Chinese Writing. The Education Bureau, HKSARG. Retrieved May 12, 2021, from https://www.edb.gov.hk/tc/curriculum-development/kla/chi-edu/curriculum-documents.html.
Hsu, H. C. K., Wang, C. V., & Levesque-Bristol, C. (2019). Reexamining the impact of self-determination theory on learning outcomes in the online learning environment. Education and Information Technologies, 24(3), 2159–2174. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-019-09863-w.
Huang, H. L., Hwang, G. J., & Chang, C. Y. (2020). Learning to be a writer: A spherical video-based virtual reality approach to supporting descriptive article writing in high school Chinese courses. British Journal of Educational Technology, 51(4), 1386–1405. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12893.
Hyland, K. (2002). Authority and invisibility: Authorial identity in academic writing. Journal of Pragmatics, 34(8), 1091–1112. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-2166(02)00035-8.
Jong, M. S. Y., Tsai, C. C., Xie, H., & Wong, F. K. K. (2020). Integrating interactive learner-immersed video-based virtual reality into learning and teaching of physical geography. British Journal of Educational Technology, 51(6), 2063–2078. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12947.
Jeno, L. M., Grytnes, J. A., & Vandvik, V. (2017). The effect of a mobile-application tool on biology students’ motivation and achievement in species identification: A Self-Determination Theory perspective. Computers and Education, 107, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2016.12.011.
Kam, A. H., & Umar, I. N. (2018). Fostering authentic learning motivations through gamification: A self-determination theory (SDT) approach. Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology, 13, 1–9. Retrieved May 12, 2021, from https://jestec.taylors.edu.my/i-Cite%202018/i-Cite_01.pdf.
Keller, J. M. (2009). Motivational design for learning and performance: The ARCS model approach. Springer Science & Business Media. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1250-3.
Kline, R. (2011). Convergence of structural equation modeling and multilevel modeling. In The SAGE handbook of innovation in social research methods (pp. 562–589). SAGE Publications Ltd. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446268261.n31.
Lan, Y. J., Botha, A., Shang, J. J., & Jong, M. S. Y. (2018). Technology-enhanced contextual game-based language Learning. Educational Technology & Society, 21(3), 86–89. Retrieved May 12, 2021, from https://www.jstor.org/stable/26458509.
Langer, J. A., & Applebee, A. N., (1987). How writing shapes thinking: A study of teaching and learning. National Council of Teachers of English.
Lin, T. J., & Lan, Y. J. (2015). Language learning in virtual reality environments: Past, present, and future. Educational Technology & Society, 18(4), 486–497. Retrieved May 12, 2021, from https://www.jstor.org/stable/jeductechsoci.18.4.486.
Marsh, H. W., & Shavelson, R. J. (2010). Self-concept: Its multifaceted, hierarchical structure. Educational Psychologist, 46(3), 107–123. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep2003_1.
Marsh, H., Hau, K. T., & Kong, C. K. (2000). Late immersion and language of instruction in Hong Kong high schools: Achievement growth in language and non-language subjects. Harvard Educational Review, 70(3), 302–347. https://doi.org/10.17763/haer.70.3.gm047588386655k5.
Merchant, Z., Goetz, E. T., Cifuentes, L., Keeney-Kennicutt, W., & Davis, T. J. (2014). Effectiveness of virtual reality-based instruction on students’ learning outcomes in K-12 and higher education: A meta-analysis. Computers & Education, 70, 29–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2013.07.033.
Pajares, F., Britner, S. L., & Valiante, G. (2000). Relation between achievement goals and self-beliefs of middle school students in writing and science. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(4), 406–422. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1027.
Peters, G. (2014). The alpha and the omega of scale reliability and validity: Why and how to abandon Cronbach’s alpha and the route towards more comprehensive assessment of scale quality. European Health Psychologist, 6(2), 56–69. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/h47fv.
Proulx, J. N., Romero, M., & Arnab, S. (2017). Learning mechanics and game mechanics under the perspective of self-determination theory to foster motivation in digital game based learning. Simulation & Gaming, 48(1), 81–97. https://doi.org/10.1177/1046878116674399.
Raykov, T., & Marcoulides, G. A. (2008). An introduction to applied multivariate analysis. Taylor & Francis. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203809532.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2020). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective: Definitions, theory, practices, and future directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 101860.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101860.
Schunk, D. H., & Zimmerman, B. J. (2007). Influencing children’s self-efficacy and self-regulation of reading and writing through modeling. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 23(1), 7–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/10573560600837578.
Seban, D., & Tavşanlı, Ö. F. (2017). Children’s sense of being a writer: identity construction in second grade writers workshop. International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education, 7(2), 215–232. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.2207.4723.
Shavelson, R. J., Hubner, J. J., & Stanton, G. C. (1976). Self-concept: Validation of construct interpretations. Review of Educational Research, 46(3), 407–441. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543046003407.
Steele, J. L., Slater, R. O., Li, J., Zamarro, G., Miller, T., & Bacon, M. (2018). Dual-language immersion education at scale: An analysis of program costs, mechanisms, and moderators. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 40(3), 420–445. https://doi.org/10.3102/0162373718779457.
Swain, M., & Lapkin, S. (2005). The evolving sociopolitical context of immersion education in Canada: Some implications for program development. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 15(2), 169–186. https://doi.org/10.3102/0162373718779457.
Wilson, M. (2002). Six views of embodied cognition. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 9(4), 625–636. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03196322.
Wright, K. L., Hodges, T. S., & McTigue, E. M. (2019). A validation program for the Self-Beliefs, Writing-Beliefs, and Attitude Survey: A measure of adolescents’ motivation toward writing. Assessing Writing, 39, 64–78. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03196322.
Yang, F. C. O., Lo, F. Y. R., Hsieh, J. C., & Wu, W. C. V. (2020). Facilitating communicative ability of EFL learners via high-immersion virtual reality. Educational Technology & Society, 23(1), 30–49. Retrieved May 12, 2021, from https://www.jstor.org/stable/26915405.
Zimmerman, B. J. (2000). Self-efficacy: An essential motive to learn. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 82–91. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1016.
Zinbarg, R., Revelle, W., Yovel, I., & Wen, L. (2005). Cronbach’s α, revelle’s β, and mcdonald’s ω h: their relations with each other and two alternative conceptualizations of reliability. Psychometrika, 70(1), 123–133. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11336-003-0974-7.
Acknowledgements
The work described in this paper was substantially supported by The Hong Kong Jockey Club Charities Trust (Project Title: Jockey Club VR Project for Enhancing Chinese Language Literacy) under a grant [Project S/N Ref: 2019/0013].
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflicts of interest
No potential conflicts of interest are reported by the authors.
Additional information
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Chen, M., Chai, CS., Jong, M.SY. et al. Modeling learners’ self-concept in Chinese descriptive writing based on the affordances of a virtual reality-supported environment. Educ Inf Technol 26, 6013–6032 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-021-10582-4
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-021-10582-4