Abstract
Training with Virtual Reality (VR) can bring several benefits, such as the reduction of costs and risks. We present an experimental study that aims to evaluate the effectiveness of a Virtual Environment (VE) to train firefighters using an innovative approach based on a Real Environment (RE) exercise. To measure the VE’s effectiveness we used a Presence Questionnaire (PQ) and participant’s cybersickness, stress and fatigue. Results from the PQ showed that participants rated the VE with high spatial presence and moderate realness and immersion. Signs of stress, analyzed from participant’s Heart-Rate Variability, were shown in the RE but not in the VE. In the remaining variables, there was only an indicative difference for fatigue in the RE. Therefore, the results suggest that although our training VE was successful in giving participants spatial presence and in not causing cybersickness, its realness and immersion provided were not enough to provoke a similar RE response.
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs11042-019-08323-4/MediaObjects/11042_2019_8323_Fig1_HTML.jpg)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs11042-019-08323-4/MediaObjects/11042_2019_8323_Fig2_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs11042-019-08323-4/MediaObjects/11042_2019_8323_Fig3_HTML.jpg)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs11042-019-08323-4/MediaObjects/11042_2019_8323_Fig4_HTML.jpg)
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ayala García A, Galván Bobadilla I, Arroyo Figueroa G, Pérez Ramírez M, Muñoz Román J (2016) Virtual reality training system for maintenance and operation of high-voltage overhead power lines. Virtual Reality 20(1):27–40
Backlund P, Engstrom H, Hammar C, Johannesson M, Lebram M (2007) Sidh-a game based firefighter training simulation. In: 2007 11th international Conference Information Visualization (IV’07), 2007, pp 899–907
Bertram J, Moskaliuk J, Cress U (2015) Virtual training: making reality work? Comput Human Behav 43:284–292
Bhagat KK, Liou W-K, Chang C-Y (2016) A cost-effective interactive 3D virtual reality system applied to military live firing training. Virtual Reality 20(2):127–140
Biodevices, “Biodevices - Soluções de Engenharia Biomédica,” (2019) [Online]. Available: http://www.vitaljacket.com. Accessed 6 June 2019.
Bliss JP, Tidwell PD, Guest MA (1997) The effectiveness of virtual reality for administering spatial navigation training to firefighters. Presence Teleop Virt Environ 6(1):73–86
Brislin RW (1970) Back-translation for cross-cultural research. J Cross-Cult Psychol 1(3):185–216
Brogni A, Vinayagamoorthy V, Steed A, Slater M (2007) Responses of participants during an immersive virtual environment experience. IJVR 6(2):1–10
Camm AJ et al. (1996) Heart rate variability: standards of measurement, physiological interpretation and clinical use. Task Force of the European Society of Cardiology and the North American Society of Pacing and Electrophysiology
Castaldo R, Melillo P, Bracale U, Caserta M, Triassi M, Pecchia L (2015) Acute mental stress assessment via short term HRV analysis in healthy adults: a systematic review with meta-analysis. Biomed Signal Process Control 18:370–377
Cha M, Han S, Lee J, Choi B (2012) A virtual reality based fire training simulator integrated with fire dynamics data. Fire Saf J 50:12–24
Clifford GD, Azuaje F, McSharry P, Eds. (2006) Advanced methods and tools for ECG data analysis. Norwood, MA, USA: Artech house, Inc.
Cruz-Neira C et al (1993) Scientists in wonderland: A report on visualization applications in the CAVE virtual reality environment. In Proceedings of 1993 IEEE research properties in virtual reality symposium, 1993, pp 59–66
Cunha JPS, Cunha B, Pereira AS, Xavier W, Ferreira N, Meireles L (2010) Vital-Jacket®: a wearable wireless vital signs monitor for patients’ mobility in cardiology and sports. In : 2010 4th International Conference on Pervasive Computing Technologies for Healthcare, 2010, pp 1–2
de Visser H, Watson MO, Salvado O, Passenger JD (2011) Progress in virtual reality simulators for surgical training and certification. Med J Aust 194(4):S38–S40
Deniaud C, Honnet V, Jeanne B, Mestre D (2015) An investigation into physiological responses in driving simulators: An objective measurement of presence. In: Science and Information Conference (SAI), 2015, pp 739–748
Dillon C, Keogh E, Freeman J, Davidoff J (2000) Aroused and immersed: the psychophysiology of presence. In: Proceedings of 3rd international workshop on presence. Delft University of Technology, Delft, pp 27–28
Dillon C, Keogh E, Freeman J, Davidoff J (2001) Presence: is your heart in it. Proceedings of the 4th Annual international workshop on presence, 2001
FLAIMTrainer (2019) FLAIM Trainer. [Online]. Available: https://www.flaimsystems.com/flaim-trainer/. Accessed 4 June 2019
Grabowski A, Jankowski J (2015) Virtual reality-based pilot training for underground coal miners. Saf Sci 72:310–314
Hambleton RK, Zenisky AL (2011) Translating and adapting tests for cross-cultural assessments. In Matsumoto D and van de Vijver FJR (Eds.), Culture and psychology. Cross-cultural research methods in psychology, pp 46–74
Hamilton PS (2002) Open source ECG analysis software documentation. Comput Cardiol 2002;29:101–104
Harter D, Lu S, Kotturu P, Pierce D (2011) An immersive virtual environment for varying risk and immersion for effective training. In: ASME 2011 World Conference on Innovative virtual reality, 2011, pp 301–307
Hendrix C, Barfield W (1996) Presence within virtual environments as a function of visual display parameters. Presence Teleop Virt Environ 5(3):274–289
IJsselsteijn WA, De Ridder H, Freeman J, Avons SE (2000) Presence: concept, determinants, and measurement. Hum Vis Electron Imaging V 3959:520–530
Jang DP, Kim IY, Nam SW, Wiederhold BK, Wiederhold MD, Kim SI (2002) Analysis of physiological response to two virtual environments: driving and flying simulation. CyberPsychol Behav 5(1):11–18
Kennedy RS, Lane NE, Berbaum KS, Lilienthal MG (1993) Simulator sickness questionnaire: an enhanced method for quantifying simulator sickness. Int J Aviat Psychol 3(3):203–220
Kinateder M et al (2014) Virtual reality for fire evacuation research. In 2014 Federated Conference on Computer Science and Information Systems, 2014, pp 313–321
LaViola JJ Jr (2000) A discussion of cybersickness in virtual environments. ACM SIGCHI Bull 32(1):47–56
Lessiter J, Freeman J, Keogh E, Davidoff J (2001) A cross-media presence questionnaire: the ITC-sense of presence inventory. Presence Teleop Virt Environ 10(3):282–297
Lomb NR (1976) Least-squares frequency analysis of unequally spaced data. Astrophys Space Sci 39(2):447–462
LUDUS-VR (2019) Firefighter training simulator. [Online]. Available: http://www.ludus-vr.com/en/portfolio/firefighter-services/. Accessed 4 June 2019
Mazuryk T, Gervautz M (1996) Virtual reality-history, applications, technology and future. Institute of Computer Graphics, Vienna University of Technology, Austria.
Meehan M, Insko B, Whitton M, Brooks FP Jr (2002) Physiological measures of presence in stressful virtual environments. ACM Trans Graph (tog) 21(3):645–652
Merchant Z, Goetz ET, Cifuentes L, Keeney-Kennicutt W, Davis TJ (2014) Effectiveness of virtual reality-based instruction on students’ learning outcomes in K-12 and higher education: a meta-analysis. Comput Educ 70:29–40
Mossel A, Froeschl M, Schoenauer C, Peer A, Goellner J, Kaufmann H (2017) VROnSite: towards immersive training of first responder squad leaders in untethered virtual reality. In: 2017 IEEE Virtual Reality (VR), 2017, pp 357–358
Nichols S, Haldane C, Wilson JR (2000) Measurement of presence and its consequences in virtual environments. Int J Hum Comput Stud 52(3):471–491
Ren A, Chi C, Luo Y (2008) Simulation of emergency evacuation in virtual reality. Tsinghua Sci Technol 13(5):674–680
Rüppel U, Schatz K (2011) Designing a BIM-based serious game for fire safety evacuation simulations. Adv Eng Inform 25(4):600–611
Sallnäs E-L (1999) Presence in multimodal interfaces. In: Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Presence, 1999, pp 6–7
Schubert T, Friedmann F, Regenbrecht H (2001) The experience of presence: factor analytic insights. Presence Teleop Virt Environ 10(3):266–281
Seymour NE et al (2002) Virtual reality training improves operating room performance: results of a randomized, double-blinded study. Ann Surg 236(4):458
SimulationTrainingSystems (2019) “ADMS-FIRE.” [Online]. Available: https://www.trainingfordisastermanagement.com/products/adms-fire/. Accessed 4 June 2019
Slater M (1999) Measuring presence: a response to the Witmer and Singer presence questionnaire. Presence 8(5):560–565
Slater M, Usoh M, Steed A (1994) Depth of presence in virtual environments. Presence Teleop Virt Environ 3(2):130–144
Slater M, Linakis V, Usoh M, Kooper R (1996) Immersion, presence and performance in virtual environments: An experiment with tri-dimensional chess. In: Proceedings of the ACM Symposium on Virtual Reality Software and Technology, 1996, pp 163–172
Slater M, Khanna P, Mortensen J, Yu I (2009) Visual realism enhances realistic response in an immersive virtual environment. IEEE Comput Graph Appl 29(3):76–84
Tate DL, Sibert L, King T (1997) Virtual environments for shipboard firefighting training. In: Proceedings of IEEE 1997 Annual International Symposium on Virtual Reality, 1997, pp 61–68
Usoh M, Catena E, Arman S, Slater M (2000) Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence Teleop Virt Environ 9(5):497–503
van Baren J, IJsselsteijn W (2004) Measuring presence : a guide to current measurement approaches
Vasconcelos-Raposo J et al (2016) Adaptation and validation of the Igroup Presence Questionnaire (IPQ) in a Portuguese sample. Presence Teleoperators virtual Environ 25(3):191–203
Wiederhold BK et al (2001) An investigation into physiological responses in virtual environments: an objective measurement of presence. In: Towar. cyberpsychology mind, cognition and society in the internet age, vol 2, 2001
Witmer BG, Singer MJ (1998) Measuring presence in virtual environments: a presence questionnaire. Presence Teleop Virt Environ 7(3):225–240
Xu Z, Lu XZ, Guan H, Chen C, Ren AZ (2014) A virtual reality based fire training simulator with smoke hazard assessment capacity. Adv Eng Softw 68:1–8
Yu I, Mortensen J, Khanna P, Spanlang B, Slater M (2012) Visual realism enhances realistic response in an immersive virtual environment-part 2. IEEE Comput Graph Appl 32(6):36–45
Zimmons P, Panter A (2003) The influence of rendering quality on presence and task performance in a virtual environment. In IEEE Virtual Reality, 2003. Proceedings, 2003, pp 293–294
Acknowledgements
This work is financed by the ERDF – European Regional Development Fund through the Operational Program for Competitiveness and Internationalization - COMPETE 2020 Program and by National Funds through the Portuguese funding agency, FCT - Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia within project POCI-01-0145-FEDER-028618 entitled PERFECT - Perceptual Equivalence in virtual Reality For authEntiC Training. All the works were conducted at INESC TEC’s MASSIVE VR Laboratory.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Narciso, D., Melo, M., Raposo, J.V. et al. Virtual reality in training: an experimental study with firefighters. Multimed Tools Appl 79, 6227–6245 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11042-019-08323-4
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11042-019-08323-4