Skip to main content
Springer Nature Link
Log in

Statistical evaluation of multiple interpolation techniques for spatial mapping of highly variable geotechnical facets of soil in natural deposition

  • RESEARCH
  • Published:
Earth Science Informatics Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This article aims to build geotechnical maps (GMs) of soil in its natural deposition using the most efficient interpolation techniques based on statistical analyses using a comprehensive field and laboratory-investigated soil database. GMs were developed based on standard penetration test (SPT-N), shear wave velocity (Vs), plasticity index (P.I), activity (A), linear shrinkage (L.S), cohesion (c), frictional angle (Φ), and chemical contents in conjunction with the recommendation for foundation design. The performance of various interpolation models was evaluated using key performance indices (KPIs) revealing that inverse distance weighting (IDW) interpolation based on the modified shepherd method demonstrated a significant validation with the least prediction error and thus opted for the development of GMs. The created GMs reveal the predomination of fine-grained soil at shallow layers (1.5–3.0 m) with SPT-N and Vs ranging between 0–20 and 0–300 (m/s); P.I between 0- < 17; A-value between 0- < 1.25; L.S between 0- < 7; c-value between 0-3psi; and Φ between 28–30°. The deeper stratum beyond m 3.0 m depth is dominated by coarse-grained soil, cobbles, and boulders. Moreover, the chemical contents at 1.5 m strata fall under the permissible thresholds. For the integrated GMs at multiple strata, the efficacy of GMs was quantified in terms of the root means square error (RMSE) and mean absolute error (MAE) that vary from 0.14 to 1.98, while the Nash Sutcliffe model efficiency coefficient (NSE) and Pearson coefficient (PC) ranged between 0.83–0.99. In addition, the pertinent recommendation maps for foundation design were developed and problematic areas were highlighted that need due attention.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10
Fig. 11
Fig. 12

Similar content being viewed by others

Data availability

Data will be available upon reasonable request.

References

  • Adimalla N, Qian H (2020) Introductory Editorial Special Issue:“Groundwater quality and contamination and the application of GIS.” Environ Earth Sci 79(18):1–2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Alasadi, LA, Abojassim, AA (2021) Mapping of Natural Radioactivity in Soil Samples of Kufa Districts, Iraq Using GIS Technique

  • Al-Ani H, Eslami-Andargoli L, Oh E, Chai G (2013) Categorising geotechnical properties of surfers paradise soil using geographic information system (GIS). GEOMATE Journal 5(10):690–695

  • Antipov VV, Ofrikhter VG (2021) Development of nondestructive techniques for preliminary soil foundations geotechnical assessment. Japanese Geotechnical Society Special Publication 9(5):215–220

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bargaoui ZK, Chebbi A (2009) Comparison of two kriging interpolation methods applied to spatiotemporal rainfall. J Hydrol 365(1–2):56–73

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Basu D, Misra A, Puppala AJ (2015) Sustainability and geotechnical engineering: perspectives and review. Can Geotech J 52(1):96–113

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Canakci H, Hamed M, Celik F, Sidik W, Eviz F (2016) Friction characteristics of organic soil with construction materials. Soils Found 56(6):965–972

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chai T, Draxler RR (2014) Root mean square error (RMSE) or mean absolute error (MAE)?–Arguments against avoiding RMSE in the literature. Geoscientific Model Development 7(3):1247–1250

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chaminé HI, Afonso MJ, Trigo JF, Freitas L, Ramos L, Carvalho JM (2021) Site appraisal in fractured rock media: coupling engineering geological mapping and geotechnical modelling. European Geologist Journal 51:30–38

    Google Scholar 

  • Das JT et al (2018) Establishing a threshold sustainability index for a geotechnical construction. IFCEE 2018:222–232

    Google Scholar 

  • Feng S, Vardanega PJ (2019) Correlation of the hydraulic conductivity of fine-grained soils with water content ratio using a database. Environmental Geotechnics 6(5):253–268

    Google Scholar 

  • Halder K, Chakraborty D (2019) Effect of interface friction angle between soil and reinforcement on bearing capacity of strip footing placed on reinforced slope. Int J Geomech 19(5):06019008

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hytiris N, Stott R, McInnes K (2014) The importance of site investigation in the construction industry: a lesson to be taught to every graduate civil and structural engineer. World Trans Eng Technol Educ 12(3):414–419

  • Ijaz N, Dai F, ur Rehman Z (2020) Paper and wood industry waste as a sustainable solution for environmental vulnerabilities of expansive soil: A novel approach. J Environ Manage 262:110285

  • Ijaz Z, Zhao C, Ijaz N, Ijaz A (2021) Spatial mapping of geotechnical soil properties at multiple depths in Sialkot region. Pakistan Environmental Earth Sciences 80(24):1–16

    Google Scholar 

  • Ijaz, Z, Zhao, C, Ijaz, N, Rehman, ZU, Ijaz, A (2022a) Novel application of Google earth engine interpolation algorithm for the development of geotechnical soil maps: a case study of mega-district. Geocarto Int 1–21

  • Ijaz N, urRehman Z, Ijaz Z (2022b) Recycling of paper/wood industry waste for hydromechanical stability of expansive soils: A novel approach. J Clean Prod 348:131345

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ijaz N, Ye W, ur Rehman Z, Ijaz Z (2022c) Novel application of low carbon limestone calcined clay cement (LC3) in expansive soil stabilization: An eco-efficient approach. J Clean Prod 371:133492

  • Ijaz N, Ye W, Rehman ZU, Ijaz Z, Junaid MF (2022d) New binary paper/wood industry waste blend for solidification/stabilisation of problematic soil subgrade: macro-micro study. Road Materials and Pavement Design 1-18

  • Ishikawa T, Yoshimi M, Isobe K, Yokohama S (2021) Reconnaissance report on geotechnical damage caused by 2018 Hokkaido Eastern Iburi earthquake with JMA seismic intensity 7. Soils Found 61(4):1151–1171

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kamran M, Bian J, Li A, Lei G, Nan X, Jin Y (2021) Investigating Eco-Environmental Vulnerability for China-Pakistan Economic Corridor Key Sector Punjab Using Multi-Sources Geo-Information. ISPRS Int J Geo Inf 10(9):625

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Karra K, Kontgis C, Statman-Weil Z, Mazzariello JC, Mathis M, Brumby SP (2021, July) Global land use/land cover with Sentinel 2 and deep learning. In 2021 IEEE international geoscience and remote sensing symposium IGARSS. IEEE, pp. 4704–4707

  • Khalid MH, Alshameri B, Abid U (2021) Application of Kriging for development of SPT N value contour maps and USCS-based soil type qualitative contour maps for Islamabad. Pakistan Environmental Earth Sciences 80(11):1–13

    Google Scholar 

  • Khan B, Jamil A, Nawaz MS (2021) Effect of Seasonal Variation and Meteorological Parameters on the Environmental Noise Pollution in the Selected Areas of Rawalpindi and Islamabad, Pakistan.

  • Kim HS, Ji Y (2022) Three-dimensional geotechnical-layer mapping in Seoul using borehole database and deep neural network-based model. Eng Geol 297:106489

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liu D, Liu H, Wu Y, Zhang W, Wang Y, Santosh M (2022) Characterization of geo-material parameters: Gene concept and big data approach in geotechnical engineering. Geosystems and Geoenvironment 1(1):100003

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lohpaisankrit W, Prasanchum H (2022) Catchment-Scale Flood Hazard Mapping in the Lower Areas of Lam Pao River Basin. Thailand Engineering Access 8(1):53–60

    Google Scholar 

  • Look BG (2007) Handbook of geotechnical investigation and design tables. Taylor & Francis

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Mahmood K, Farooq K, Memon SA (2016) One dimensional equivalent linear ground response analysis—a case study of collapsed Margalla Tower in Islamabad during 2005 Muzaffarabad Earthquake. J Appl Geophys 130:110–117

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mannan, A., Yongxiang, F., Khan, T. U., Nizami, S. M., Mukete, B., Ahmad, A., ... & Wali Muhammad, M. (2021). Urban Growth Patterns and Forest Carbon Dynamics in the Metropolitan Twin Cities of Islamabad and Rawalpindi, Pakistan. Sustainability 2021, 13, 12842

  • Martínez-Graña AM, Goy JL, Zazo C, Silva PG (2016) Soil map and 3D virtual tour using a database of soil-forming factors. Environmental Earth Sciences 75(21):1–19

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moaveni, M, Butt, AA, Gundapuneni, S, Groves, AD, Widener, SM (2022) Geotechnical Investigation of Urban Roads with Composite Pavement Structures Using Destructive and Non-destructive Testing. In Advances in Transportation Geotechnics IV. Springer, Cham, pp. 807–818

  • Mochtar HIB, Mochtar NEB (2018) The Effect of Cracks Propagation on Cohesion and Internal Friction Angle for High Plasticity Clay. Int J Appl Eng Res 13(5):2504–2507

    Google Scholar 

  • Moriyama, M. (Sep. 2014). GCOM–C1/SGLI Land Surface Temperature Product Algorithm Theoretical Basis Document (Version 1). Retrieved from https://suzaku.eorc.jaxa.jp/GCOM_C/data/ATBD/ver1/LST-ATBD_2014.pdf. Accessed Jan 2022

  • Muñoz Sabater, J., (2019): ERA5-Land monthly averaged data from 1981 to present. Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S) Climate Data Store (CDS). (<date of access>). https://doi.org/10.24381/cds.68d2bb30

  • Ortigão JAR (2020) Soil mechanics in the light of critical state theories: an introduction. CRC Press

  • Pachauri AK, Pant M (1992) Landslide hazard mapping based on geological attributes. Eng Geol 32:81–100

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Panagos P, Borrelli P, Meusburger K, Yu B, Klik A, Lim KJ, ... Ballabio C (2017) Global rainfall erosivity assessment based on high-temporal resolution rainfall records. Scientific Reports 7(1):1–12

  • Prins LT, Andresen KJ (2021) A geotechnical stratigraphy for the shallow subsurface in the Southern Central Graben. North Sea Engineering Geology 286:106089

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ray R, Kumar D, Samui P, Roy LB, Goh ATC, Zhang W (2021) Application of soft computing techniques for shallow foundation reliability in geotechnical engineering. Geosci Front 12(1):375–383

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raza F, Alshameri B, Jamil SM (2021) Engineering aspect of sustainability assessment for geotechnical projects. Environ Dev Sustain 23(4):6359–6394

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sanchez PA et al (2009) Digital soil map of the world. Science 325:680–681

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Searle, R., McBratney, A., Grundy, M., Kidd, D., Malone, B., Arrouays, D., ... & Andrews, K. (2021). Digital soil mapping and assessment for Australia and beyond: A propitious future. Geoderma Regional, 24, e00359

  • Selcer P (2015) Fabricating unity: The FAO-UNESCO soil map of the world. Historical Social Research/Historische Sozialforschung 174–201

  • Shogaki T, Nakano Y (2022) Geotechnical investigation of the Naval dry dock at the Mietsu Naval Facility World Heritage Site. Japan Soils and Foundations 62(1):101096

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thaimo, F, Ekolu, SO, Quainoo, H (2021) Standard relationship between plasticity index and linear shrinkage: revisited. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers-Geotechnical Engineering, pp. 1–9

  • Ting MZY, Wong KS, Rahman ME, Joo MS (2021) Cyclic compressive behavior of limestone and silicomanganese slag concrete subjected to sulphate attack and wetting-drying action in marine environment. Journal of Building Engineering 44:103357

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ur Rehman Z, Khalid U (2021) Reuse of COVID-19 face mask for the amelioration of mechanical properties of fat clay: A novel solution to an emerging waste problem. Sci Total Environ 794:148746

  • ur Rehman, Khalid U, Ijaz N, Mujtaba H, Haider A, Farooq K, Ijaz Z (2022) Machine learning-based intelligent modeling of hydraulic conductivity of sandy soils considering a wide range of grain sizes. Eng Geol 311:106899

  • Watabe Y, Noguchi T (2011) Site-investigation and geotechnical design of D-runway construction in Tokyo Haneda Airport. Soils Found 51(6):1003–1018

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wu XZ (2013) Trivariate analysis of soil ranking-correlated characteristics and its application to probabilistic stability assessments in geotechnical engineering problems. Soils Found 53:540–556

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Xu W, Wang Q, Chen R (2018) Spatio-temporal prediction of crop disease severity for agricultural emergency management based on recurrent neural networks. GeoInformatica 22(2):363–381

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yaseen M, Naseem AA, Ahmad J, Mehmood M, Anjum MN (2021) Integrated Approach for Inventories and Quantitative Assessment of Geological and Paleontological Sites from Precambrian to Quaternary Successions in the Salt Range. Pakistan Geoheritage 13(2):1–24

    Google Scholar 

  • Žížala D, Minařík R, Skála J, Beitlerová H, Juřicová A, Rojas JR, ... Zádorová T (2022) High-resolution agriculture soil property maps from digital soil mapping methods, Czech Republic. Catena 212:106024

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Key Laboratory of Geotechnical and Underground Engineering of Ministry of Education, College of Civil Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, China

    Zain Ijaz & Nauman Ijaz

  2. College of Civil Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, China

    Cheng Zhao

  3. School of Civil Engineering and Surveying, University of Portsmouth, Portland Building, Portland Street, Portsmouth, PO1 3AH, UK

    Zia ur Rehman

  4. Department of Civil Engineering, University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore, 54890, Pakistan

    Aashan Ijaz

  5. Highways, Communication and Works Department, Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan

    Aashan Ijaz

Authors
  1. Zain Ijaz
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author inPubMed Google Scholar

  2. Cheng Zhao
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author inPubMed Google Scholar

  3. Nauman Ijaz
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author inPubMed Google Scholar

  4. Zia ur Rehman
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author inPubMed Google Scholar

  5. Aashan Ijaz
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author inPubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

Zain Ijaz: Conceptualization, Methodology, Validation, Software, Formal Analysis, Writing—Original Draft.

Cheng Zhao: Supervision, Project, Administration, Review, and editing.

Nauman Ijaz: Conceptualization, Validation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Writing—Original Draft.

Zia-ur-Rehman: Methodology, Formal analysis, Validation, Software, Review, and editing.

Aashan Ijaz: Methodology, Visualization, Formal analysis, Review, and editing.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Nauman Ijaz.

Ethics declarations

Ethical approval

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors have no competing interests in the submission of this manuscript.

Additional information

Communicated by H. Babaie.

Publisher's note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Ijaz, Z., Zhao, C., Ijaz, N. et al. Statistical evaluation of multiple interpolation techniques for spatial mapping of highly variable geotechnical facets of soil in natural deposition. Earth Sci Inform 16, 105–129 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12145-022-00924-2

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12145-022-00924-2

Keywords