Abstract
Time-series representation is fundamental for various analysis tasks on time-series data, such as similarity analysis, clustering, and classification. Traditional representation methods produce indistinguishable representations based on statistical information. Given the good performance of deep learning techniques in feature extraction, we apply it to the task of time-series data representation. However, such methods are usually evaluated only through a few quantitative metrics that reflect the limited model performance and lack further explanation. In this paper, we design TSRNet, a deep neural network containing two weight-sharing auto-encoders to learn representations effectively. To better analyze the representation, we design an interactive visual analytics system TSRVis in collaboration with seven experts from the fields of visual analytics and machine learning. Experimental evaluations on 18 datasets verify the effectiveness of TSRNet in terms of clustering accuracy. Three case studies demonstrate that TSRVis is practicable for assisting analysts to perform overview, comparison, and point-of-interest analyses and assess the validity of representations from multiple perspectives.
Graphical abstract
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abadi M, Agarwal A, Barham P, Brevdo E, Chen Z, Citro C, Corrado GS, Davis A, Dean J, Devin M, Ghemawat S, Goodfellow I, Harp A, Irving G, Isard M, Jia Y, Jozefowicz R, Kaiser L, Kudlur M, Levenberg J, Mané D, Monga R, Moore S, Murray D, Olah C, Schuster M, Shlens J, Steiner B, Sutskever I, Talwar K, Tucker P, Vanhoucke V, Vasudevan V, Viégas F, Vinyals O, Warden P, Wattenberg M, Wicke M, Yu Y, Zheng X (2015) TensorFlow: large-scale machine learning on heterogeneous systems. Software available from tensorflow.org
Ahn Y, Lin Y-R (2019) Fairsight: visual analytics for fairness in decision making. IEEE Trans Vis Comput Gr 26(1):1086–1095
Bai S, Kolter JZ, Koltun V (2018) An empirical evaluation of generic convolutional and recurrent networks for sequence modeling. arXiv preprint arXiv:1803.01271
Bai Z, Tao Y, Lin H (2020) Time-varying volume visualization: a survey. J Vis 23(5):745–761
Bernard J, Hutter M, Zeppelzauer M, Fellner D, Sedlmair M (2017) Comparing visual-interactive labeling with active learning: an experimental study. IEEE Trans Vis Comput Gr 24(1):298–308
Boniol P, Linardi M, Roncallo F, Palpanas T (2020) Automated anomaly detection in large sequences. In: 2020 IEEE 36th international conference on data engineering (ICDE), pp. 1834–1837. IEEE
Cao K, Liu M, Su H, Wu J, Zhu J, Liu S (2020) Analyzing the noise robustness of deep neural networks. IEEE Trans Vis Comput Gr 27(7):3289–3304
Chen C, Yuan J, Lu Y, Liu Y, Su H, Yuan S, Liu S (2020) Oodanalyzer: interactive analysis of out-of-distribution samples. IEEE Trans Vis Comput Gr 27(7):3335–3349
Chen Y, Garcia EK, Gupta MR, Rahimi A, Cazzanti L (2009) Similarity-based classification: concepts and algorithms. J Mach Learn Res 10(3):747–776
Dau HA, Bagnall A, Kamgar K, Yeh C-CM, Zhu Y, Gharghabi S, Ratanamahatana CA, Keogh E (2019) The ucr time series archive. IEEE/CAA J Autom Sin 6(6):1293–1305
Devlin J, Chang M-W, Lee K, Toutanova K (2018) Bert: pre-training of deep bidirectional transformers for language understanding. arXiv preprint arXiv:1810.04805
Franceschi J-Y, Dieuleveut A, Jaggi M (2019) Unsupervised scalable representation learning for multivariate time series. In: Wallach H, Larochelle H, Beygelzimer A, d'Alché-Buc F, Fox E, Garnett R (eds) Advances in neural information processing systems, vol 32. Curran Associates, Inc. https://proceedings.neurips.cc/paper/2019/file/53c6de78244e9f528eb3e1cda69699bb-Paper.pdf
Fujiwara T, Sakamoto N, Nonaka J, Yamamoto K, Ma K-L et al (2020) A visual analytics framework for reviewing multivariate time-series data with dimensionality reduction. IEEE Trans Vis Comput Gr 27(2):1601–1611
Fujiwara T, Wei X, Zhao J, Ma K-L (2021) Interactive dimensionality reduction for comparative analysis. IEEE Trans Vis Comput Gr 28(1):758–768
Gogolou A, Tsandilas T, Palpanas T, Bezerianos A (2018) Comparing similarity perception in time series visualizations. IEEE Trans Vis Comput Gr 25(1):523–533
Goldin DQ, Kanellakis PC (1995) On similarity queries for time-series data: Constraint specification and implementation. In: Montanari U, Rossi F (eds) Principles and practice of constraint programming - CP’95, first international conference, CP’95, Cassis, France, September 19-22, Proceedings, vol. 976 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science, pp. 137–153. Springer https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-60299-2_9
Gratzl S, Lex A, Gehlenborg N, Pfister H, Streit M (2013) Lineup: visual analysis of multi-attribute rankings. IEEE Trans Vis Comput Gr 19(12):2277–2286. https://doi.org/10.1109/TVCG.2013.173
Guo Y, Guo S, Jin Z, Kaul S, Gotz D, Cao N (2021) A survey on visual analysis of event sequence data. IEEE Trans Vis Comput Gr 28(12):5091–5112. https://doi.org/10.1109/TVCG.2021.3100413
Han D, Pan J, Guo F, Luo X, Wu Y, Zheng W, Chen W (2019) Rankbrushers: interactive analysis of temporal ranking ensembles. J Vis 22(6):1241–1255
He K, Zhang X, Ren S, Sun J (2016) Deep residual learning for image recognition. In: Proceedings of the IEEE conference on computer vision and pattern recognition, pp. 770–778
Hoffman P, Grinstein G, Marx K, Grosse I, Stanley E (1997) Dna visual and analytic data mining. In: Proceedings. Visualization’97 (Cat. No. 97CB36155), pp. 437–441. IEEE
Ismail Fawaz H, Lucas B, Forestier G, Pelletier C, Schmidt DF, Weber J, Webb GI, Idoumghar L, Muller P-A, Petitjean F (2020) Inceptiontime: finding alexnet for time series classification. Data Min Knowl Discov 34(6):1936–1962
Jiang L, Liu S, Chen C (2019) Recent research advances on interactive machine learning. J Vis 22(2):401–417
Keogh E, Chakrabarti K, Pazzani M, Mehrotra S (2001) Dimensionality reduction for fast similarity search in large time series databases. Knowl Inf Syst 3(3):263–286
Kim W, Shim C, Chung YD (2021) Skyflow: a visual analysis of high-dimensional skylines in time-series. J Vis 24(5):1033–1050
Kong L, Tang X, Zhu J, Wang Z, Li J, Wu H, Wu Q, Chen H, Zhu L, Wang W, Liu B, Wang Q, Chen D, Pan Y, Song T, Li F, Zheng H, Jia G, Lu M, Wu L, Carmichael GR (2021) A 6-year-long (2013–2018) high-resolution air quality reanalysis dataset in China based on the assimilation of surface observations from CNEMC. Earth Syst Sci Data 13(2):529–570. https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-13-529-2021
Kowsari K, Jafari Meimandi K, Heidarysafa M, Mendu S, Barnes L, Brown D (2019) Text classification algorithms: a survey. Information 10(4):150
Kwon BC, Eysenbach B, Verma J, Ng K, De Filippi C, Stewart WF, Perer A (2017) Clustervision: visual supervision of unsupervised clustering. IEEE Trans Vis Comput Gr 24(1):142–151
LeCun Y, Bengio Y, Hinton G (2015) Deep learning. Nature 521(7553):436–444
Lei H, Xia J, Guo F, Zou Y, Chen W, Liu Z (2016) Visual exploration of latent ranking evolutions in time series. J Vis 19(4):783–795
Lin H, Gao S, Gotz D, Du F, He J, Cao N (2017) Rclens: interactive rare category exploration and identification. IEEE Trans Vis Comput Gr 24(7):2223–2237
Lin J, Keogh E, Lonardi S, Chiu B (2003) A symbolic representation of time series, with implications for streaming algorithms. In: Proceedings of the 8th ACM SIGMOD workshop on research issues in data mining and knowledge discovery, pp. 2–11
Liu S, Cui W, Wu Y, Liu M (2014) A survey on information visualization: recent advances and challenges. Vis Comput 30(12):1373–1393
Lv C, Ren K, Zhang H, Fu J, Lin Y (2022) PEVis: visual analytics of potential anomaly pattern evolution for temporal multivariate data.Springer. J Vis 25(3):575–591
Malhotra P, TV V, Vig L, Agarwal P, Shroff G (2017) Timenet: Pre-trained deep recurrent neural network for time series classification. arXiv Preprint arXiv:1706.08838
Nonato LG, Aupetit M (2018) Multidimensional projection for visual analytics: Linking techniques with distortions, tasks, and layout enrichment. IEEE Trans Vis Comput Gr 25(8):2650–2673
Paparrizos J, Gravano L (2015) k-shape: efficient and accurate clustering of time series. In: Proceedings of the 2015 ACM SIGMOD international conference on management of data, pp. 1855–1870
Qu D, Lin X, Ren K, Liu Q, Zhang H (2020) Airexplorer: visual exploration of air quality data based on time-series querying. J Vis 23(6):1129–1145
Rakthanmanon T, Keogh EJ, Lonardi S, Evans S (2011) Time series epenthesis: Clustering time series streams requires ignoring some data. In: 2011 IEEE 11th international conference on data mining, pp. 547–556. IEEE
Richardson S, Green PJ (1997) On bayesian analysis of mixtures with an unknown number of components (with discussion). J R Stat Soc Ser B (Stat Methodol) 59(4):731–792
Sacha D, Zhang L, Sedlmair M, Lee JA, Peltonen J, Weiskopf D, North SC, Keim DA (2016) Visual interaction with dimensionality reduction: a structured literature analysis. IEEE Trans Vis Comput Gr 23(1):241–250
Shi C, Cui W, Liu S, Xu P, Chen W, Qu H (2012) Rankexplorer: visualization of ranking changes in large time series data. IEEE Trans Vis Comput Gr 18(12):2669–2678. https://doi.org/10.1109/TVCG.2012.253
Turkay C, Kaya E, Balcisoy S, Hauser H (2016) Designing progressive and interactive analytics processes for high-dimensional data analysis. IEEE Trans Vis Comput Gr 23(1):131–140
Wang Q, Palpanas T (2021) Deep learning embeddings for data series similarity search. In: Proceedings of the 27th ACM SIGKDD conference on knowledge discovery & data mining, pp. 1708–1716
Yuan J, Chen C, Yang W, Liu M, Xia J, Liu S (2021) A survey of visual analytics techniques for machine learning. Comput Vis Med 7(1):3–36
Zeiler MD, Fergus R (2014) Visualizing and understanding convolutional networks. In: European conference on computer vision. Springer, pp. 818–833
Zhao Y, Ge L, Xie H, Bai G, Zhang Z, Wei Q, Lin Y, Liu Y, Zhou F (2022) Astf: visual abstractions of time-varying patterns in radio signals. IEEE Trans Vis Comput Gr. https://doi.org/10.1109/TVCG.2022.3209469
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China under Grant U1836114.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Zhou, Y., Jiang, R., Qin, H. et al. Representation and analysis of time-series data via deep embedding and visual exploration. J Vis 26, 593–610 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12650-022-00890-3
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12650-022-00890-3