Abstract
Cognitive controls are a set of interrelated mental skills. Academic and professional successes require proper coordination of these skills. Young generations suffer from cognitive deficits due to their addiction to the internet and computer games. To resolve their mental health crisis, it is essential to understand the individuals’ cognitive abilities and impairments. Existing tasks to measure mental abilities are mostly either paper–pencil-based or desktop computer-based. We have developed a novel system named ‘Montaj’ in a handheld device for carrying out psychological tests and assessing cognitive skills. Cognitive skills measuring psychological tasks were embedded in this system. We have done gamification of these tasks and presented them to subjects as a gaming platform. As the existing research on cognitive abilities focused mainly on preschool or school children, we have studied variations of cognitive skills among young adults with different demographics like age, gender, and institutes using the scores of our game-based software containing four cognitive games. We have used a unique and combined scoring system to measure cognitive functions. One hundred forty-three students from two different institutions were examined using these games. The scores of the first three games were compared with the scores of the last game, which embeds the Stroop task to correlate attention and working memory measures. We recommend only a few game levels for measuring attention and working memory based on a positive correlation with the Stroop task. A composite score has been proposed using analytic hierarchy process and technique for order of preference by similarity to ideal solution.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability statement
The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
References
Adams AM, Bourke L, Willis CJIJOP (1999) Working memory and spoken language comprehension in young children. 34(5–6):364–373
Anitha N, Devi Priya R, Baskar C, Devi Surya V (2020) Analysis of socio-cognitive skills among 90’s and 2k’s generations using machine learning techniques. In: International conference on innovations in bio-inspired computing and applications
Baddeley AD, Hitch G (1974) Working memory. In: Psychology of learning and motivation, vol 8. Elsevier, pp 47–89
Baddeley AJCB (2010) Working memory. 20(4):R136–R140
Bauer RM, Iverson GL, Cernich AN, Binder LM, Ruff RM, Naugle RIJAOCN (2012) Computerized neuropsychological assessment devices: joint position paper of the American Academy of Clinical Neuropsychology and the National Academy of Neuropsychology 27(3):362–373
Blair C, Razza RPJCD (2007) Relating effortful control, executive function, and false belief understanding to emerging math and literacy ability in kindergarten. 78(2):647–663
Blohm I, Leimeister JMJB, & Engineering, I. S. (2013) Gamification 5(4):275–278
Boendermaker WJ, Boffo M, Wiers RW (2015) Exploring elements of fun to motivate youth to do cognitive bias modification. Games Health J 4(6):434–443
Boot WR, Kramer AF, Simons DJ, Fabiani M, Gratton GJAP (2008) The effects of video game playing on attention, memory, and executive control 129(3):387–398
Bull R, Scerif GJDN (2001) Executive functioning as a predictor of children's mathematics ability: inhibition, switching, and working memory 19(3):273–293
Burgess SR, Stermer SP, Burgess MCJCSJ (2012) Video game playing and academic performance in college students 46(2):376–388
Chan PA, Rabinowitz TJAOGP (2006) A cross-sectional analysis of video games and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms in adolescents 5(1):1–10
Chan RC, Shum D, Toulopoulou T, Chen EYJAOCN (2008) Assessment of executive functions: review of instruments and identification of critical issues 23(2):201–216
Cheung KY, Lau HW, Lui TM, Mak HC, Yuen PL (2018) Association between attention, working memory and addition performance in preschool and early-school children
Collishaw S, Maughan B, Goodman R, Pickles AJJOCP, Psychiatry (2004) Time trends in adolescent mental health. 45(8):1350–1362
Conway AR, Kane MJ, Bunting MF, Hambrick DZ, Wilhelm O, Engle RWJPB, Review (2005). Working memory span tasks: a methodological review and user’s guide 12(5):769–786
Corkum PV, Siegel LSJJOCP, Psychiatry (1993) Is the continuous performance task a valuable research tool for use with children with attention‐deficit‐hyperactivity disorder? 34(7):1217–1239
de Paula G, Valentim P, Seixas F, Santana R, Muchaluat-Saade D (2020). Sensory effects in cognitive exercises for elderly users: stroop game. In: 2020 IEEE 33rd international symposium on computer-based medical systems (CBMS)
DePrince AP, Weinzierl KM, Combs MDJJOT, Dissociation (2008) Stroop performance, dissociation, and trauma exposure in a community sample of children 9(2):209–223
Diamond AJAROP (2013) Executive functions 64:135–168
Dobbs J, Doctoroff GL, Fisher PH, Arnold DHJJOADP (2006) The association between preschool children's socio-emotional functioning and their mathematical skills 27(2):97–108
Epstein JN, Erkanli A, Conners CK, Klaric J, Costello JE, Angold AJJOACP (2003) Relations between continuous performance test performance measures and ADHD behaviors 31(5):543–554
Friedman NP, Miyake AJC (2017) Unity and diversity of executive functions: individual differences as a window on cognitive structure 86:186–204
Funahashi S, Andreau JMJJOP-P (2013) Prefrontal cortex and neural mechanisms of executive function 107(6):471–482
Gathercole SE, Pickering SJJBJOEP (2000) Working memory deficits in children with low achievements in the national curriculum at 7 years of age. 70(2):177–194
Green CS, Bavelier DJN (2003) Action video game modifies visual selective attention 423(6939):534–537
Hallahan DP, Kauffman JM, Ball DWJP, Skills M (1973) Selective attention and cognitive tempo of low achieving and high achieving sixth grade males 36(2):579–583
Heatherton TF, Wagner DDJTICS (2011) Cognitive neuroscience of self-regulation failure 15(3):132–139
Homer BD, Plass JL, Raffaele C, Ober TM, Ali AJC, Education (2018) Improving high school students' executive functions through digital game play. 117:50–58
Hwang C-L, Yoon K (1981) Methods for multiple attribute decision making. In: Multiple attribute decision making. Springer, pp 58–191
Imbrosciano A, Berlach RG (2005) The Stroop test and its relationship to academic performance and general behaviour of young students. Teacher Dev 9(1):131–144
Klee SH, Garfinkel BDJJOACP (1983). The computerized continuous performance task: a new measure of inattention. 11(4):487–495
Lamers MJ, Roelofs A, Rabeling-Keus IMJM, Cognition (2010) Selective attention and response set in the Stroop task. 38(7):893–904
Lan X, Legare CH, Ponitz CC, Li S, Morrison FJJJOECP (2011) Investigating the links between the subcomponents of executive function and academic achievement: a cross-cultural analysis of Chinese and American preschoolers. 108(3):677–692
Lowe DG, Mitterer JOJCJOPRCDP (1982) Selective and divided attention in a Stroop task. 36(4):684
Malenka R, Nestler E, Hyman SJMNAFFCN (2009) Chapter 6: widely projecting systems: monoamines, acetylcholine, and orexin. 147–157
McClelland MM, Cameron CE, Connor CM, Farris CL, Jewkes AM, Morrison FJJDP (2007). Links between behavioral regulation and preschoolers' literacy, vocabulary, and math skills. 43(4):947
McGrew KS (2009) CHC theory and the human cognitive abilities project: standing on the shoulders of the giants of psychometric intelligence research. In: Elsevier
Miller M, Nevado-Montenegro AJ, Hinshaw SPJJOACP (2012) Childhood executive function continues to predict outcomes in young adult females with and without childhood-diagnosed ADHD 40(5):657–668
Mora A, González C, Arnedo-Moreno J, Álvarez A (2016) Gamification of cognitive training: a crowdsourcing-inspired approach for older adults. In: Proceedings of the XVII international conference on human computer interaction
Mutter SA, Naylor JC, Patterson ER (2005) The effects of age and task context on Stroop task performance. Mem Cognit 33(3):514–530
Nouchi R, Taki Y, Takeuchi H, Hashizume H, Nozawa T, Kambara T, Nouchi HJPO (2013) Brain training game boosts executive functions, working memory and processing speed in the young adults: a randomized controlled trial. 8(2):e55518
Ren L, Pan H, Zhang J, Sun C (2019) The design of card game for leukemia children based on narrative design. In: International conference on applied human factors and ergonomics
Saaty TLJJOAT (1995) Transport planning with multiple criteria: the analytic hierarchy process applications and progress review 29(1):81–126
Schofield NJ, Ashman AFJI (1986) The relationship between digit span and cognitive processing across ability groups 10(1):59–73
Schrank FA (2022) 31 Woodcock-Johnson III tests of cognitive abilities
Sharples M, Roschelle J (2010) Guest editorial: special issue on mobile and ubiquitous technologies for learning. IEEE Trans Learn Technol 3(1):4–5
Slife BD, Weaver CAJC, Emotion (1992) Depression, cognitive skill, and metacognitive skill in problem solving 6(1):1–22
Snyder HR, Miyake A, Hankin BLJFIP (2015) Advancing understanding of executive function impairments and psychopathology: bridging the gap between clinical and cognitive approaches 6:328
Song S, Rho M, Kim S (2016) Situation-aware communication method based on contextual info. In: Proceedings of the 19th ACM conference on computer supported cooperative work and social computing companion
Thomas JG, Milner HR, Haberlandt KFJPS (2003) Forward and backward recall: different response time patterns, same retrieval order 14(2):169–174
Troyer AK, Rowe G, Murphy KJ, Levine B, Leach L, Hasher LJFIAN (2014). Development and evaluation of a self-administered online test of memory and attention for middle-aged and older adults 6:335
Willner CJ, Gatzke-Kopp LM, Bierman KL, Greenberg MT, Segalowitz SJJDP (2015). Relevance of a neurophysiological marker of attention allocation for children’s learning-related behaviors and academic performance 51(8):1148
Yu-Lin G, Zhang S-H, Zhang Y, Ming-Xin W, Li Y-X, Zhen-Ni W, Health (2018) Action video games influence on audiovisual integration in visual selective attention condition (icmsb)
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank all the participants who participated in the study. We gratefully acknowledge all reviewers and the Associate Editor for their valuable time and suggestions.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
We have the copyright of software “Montaj”, Registration No. SW-14044/2020.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Basu, S., Saha, S., Das, S. et al. Assessment of attention and working memory among young adults using computer games. J Ambient Intell Human Comput 14, 2413–2428 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12652-022-04494-5
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12652-022-04494-5