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Investigating the Meaning of Dharma “Fa” (法): With Chinese Saṃyuktāgama as the Subject

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New Perspectives on the Research of Chinese Culture

Part of the book series: Chinese Culture ((CHINESE,volume 1))

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Abstract

Fa (法), as dhamma in Pāli and dharma in Sanskrit, is well regarded as the most common word in Buddhist classics. It is also a core concept of Buddhism. There have been various discussions over the meaning of the concept of dhamma in Pāli Buddhist canon. It has always been believed that Pāli Buddhist canon and the corresponding Chinese Buddhist translations resemble over their teaching. Therefore, fa in Chinese Buddhist translations has long been overlooked by academics. Indeed, when Buddhist classics entered Chinese cultural domain, they developed as a distinct system in another language and logical network, enriching Buddhist teachings and giving particular contribution to development of teaching of Chinese Buddhism. Based on Chinese SaÂyuktāgama as primary resources, this chapter attempts to discuss the concept of fa from the two perspectives of Buddhist teaching and Chinese terminology, hoping to enhance the study of Chinese Buddhist translations.

This chapter is originally written in Chinese. I extend my appreciation to Cheng Yuwai, Irene, my assistant, who helped with preparing the translation.

Acknowledgement The work described in this chapter was fully supported by a grant from the Research Grants Council of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China (Project No. CityU 149109).

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Notes

  1. 1.

    As for the study on the concept of dharma (fa), this chapter takes reference of the following publications: Yasukata Kimura au., Ou-yang Hanchun 歐陽瀚存trans., Discussion on the Thinking of Original Buddhism原始佛教思想論 (Taipei: Taiwan Commercial Press, 1968), ch. 1, sec. 3; Yin Shu, Studying Buddhist Dharma by Buddhist Dharma以佛法研究佛法 (Taipei: Zhangwan Press, 1983, 4th edition), pp. 103–130; Akira Hirakawa, “The meaning of dharma in original Buddhism 原始佛教における法の意味,” in Hirakawa Akira Hakushi Kanreki Kinenkai ed., Studies on Dharma in Buddhism佛敎における法の硏究 (Tokyo: Shunjūsha, 1975), pp. 5–39; authored by the same above, Dharma and Pratītya-samutpāda法と緣起 (Tokyo: Shunjūsha, 1988), ch. 1, 2; I. B. Horner, “Early Buddhist dhamma,” Artibus. Vol. 11 (1948), pp. 115–123; A. K. Warder, “Dharmas and data,” Journal of Indian Philosophy. Vol. 1 (1971), pp. 272–295; J. R. Carter, “Traditional definitions of the term dhamma,” Philosophy East and West. Vol. 26 no. 3 (1976), pp. 329–337; Edward Conze, Buddhist Thought in India. London: Allen & Unwin, 1983. Ch. 7; J. R. Carter, “Dhamma at the center,” in On Understanding Buddhists. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1993, pp. 37–53; Rupert Gethin, “He who sees dhamma sees dhammas: dhamma in early Buddhism,” Journal of Indian Philosophy. Vol. 32 (2004), pp. 513–542.

  2. 2.

    ZJ consists of numerous versions. This chapter adopts the one of Combined Edition of Sūtra and Śāstra of Samʿyuktāgama雜阿含經論會編 (Taipei, Zhengwen Chubanshe, 1991), 3 Vols. edited by Yin Shun.

  3. 3.

    For examination of the word fa from perspective of Chinese terminology, see Liang Xiaohung 梁曉虹, Development of Structure of Buddhist Terminology and Chinese Terminology佛教詞語的構造與漢語詞匯的發展 (Beijing: Beijing Language Academy Press, 1994), pp. 67, 145; Liang Xiaohung, Xu Shiyi徐時儀 & Chen Wuyun 陳五雲, Studies on Pronunciation, Meaning and Chinese Terminology in Buddhist Translations佛經音義與漢語詞彙研究(Beijing: Commercial Press, 2005), pp. 134–137.

  4. 4.

    Though this chapter is a study of a Chinese word fa (法), for the sake of English readers, the corresponding Sanskrit word dharma is always used instead of fa.

  5. 5.

    Taishō Shinshū Daizōkyō大正新修大藏經(abbreviated as T)(Taipei, Xinwenfeng Press Co. Ltd., 1983 reprint), Vol. 31, p. 1a.

  6. 6.

    ZJ 129, Vol. 1, p. 123.

  7. 7.

    ZJ 1640, Vol. 3, p 457.

  8. 8.

    ZJ 596, Vol. 2, p. 127.

  9. 9.

    ZJ 169, Vol. 1, p. 171.

  10. 10.

    ZJ 390, Vol. 1, p. 334.

  11. 11.

    ZJ 45, Vol. 1, p. 54.

  12. 12.

    ZJ 379, Vol. 1, p. 308.

  13. 13.

    “The four kinds of not spoiling and cleanness” corresponds to Pāli word aveccappasādā which is made up of the two parts: avecca (know) and pasādā (bright, like and confidence). Its later Chinese translation of zhangjin (證淨) is closer to the meaning of Pāli word. Generally, this Pāli term is translated as “four kinds of unwavering faith”.

  14. 14.

    ZJ 13323, Vol. 3, p. 689.

  15. 15.

    See Liang Bi良賁 (717–777), Renwanghuguo Banruoboluomiduo Jingshu 仁王護國般若波羅蜜多經疏, T 33, p. 440c.

  16. 16.

    ZJ 158, 389, Vol. 1, pp. 157, 331.

  17. 17.

    ZJ 126, Vol. 1, p. 119.

  18. 18.

    ZJ 52, Vol. 1, p. 75.

  19. 19.

    ZJ 98, Vol. 1, p. 263.

  20. 20.

    ZJ 468, Vol. 2, pp. 11–12.

  21. 21.

    Grand immortal corresponds to isi in Pāli language, meaning saints and prophets.

  22. 22.

    Gautama is the secular family name of Buddha.

  23. 23.

    Sakya is the ethnic group Buddha belongs to.

  24. 24.

    See Chapter 32 for the original text, “heaven and earth collides, let sweet dews fall” (天地相合,以降甘露).

  25. 25.

    ZJ 596, Vol. 2, p. 127.

  26. 26.

    ZJ 44, Vol. 1, p. 52.

  27. 27.

    ZJ 1187, Vol. 3, p. 31.

  28. 28.

    ZJ 1476, Vol. 3, p. 373.

  29. 29.

    ZJ 473, Vol. 2, p. 22.

  30. 30.

    ZJ 477, Vol. 2, p. 35.

  31. 31.

    ZJ 474, 480, Vol. 2, pp. 25, 40.

  32. 32.

    ZJ 456, Vol. 1, p. 414. Its counterpart in Zengyiahan Jing增一阿含經(Ekottarāgama) translating sushufa as jiehaofa 假號法 and yinyuanfa 因緣法. See T 2, p. 713c.Yin Shun indicates that according to Shunzhengli Lun順正理論 (Nyāyānusāra) translated by Xuan Zhuang 玄奘(ca. 602–664),sushufa is the another translation of fajia 法假or fashishe 法施設 (the corresponding Sanskrit word is dharma-prajñapti), denoting to the rise and emancipation of twelve reincarnation stages. See Yin Shun, Investigation of Emptiness 空之探究 (Taipei: Zhengwen Press, 1992), pp. 82–83.

  33. 33.

    ZJ 13383, Vol. 3, p. 756.

  34. 34.

    ZJ 841, 1249, Vol. 2, p. 303, Vol. 3, p. 109.

  35. 35.

    ZJ 176, Vol. 1, p 197.

  36. 36.

    ZJ 1266, Vol. 3, pp. 128–129.

  37. 37.

    ZJ 248, Vol. 1, p. 406.

  38. 38.

    ZJ 1227, Vol. 3, p. 79.

  39. 39.

    ZJ 1174, Vol. 3, p. 9.

  40. 40.

    ZJ 1283, Vol. 3, p. 159.

  41. 41.

    ZJ 1195, Vol. 3, p. 40.

  42. 42.

    ZJ 796, Vol. 2, p. 267.

  43. 43.

    Station of mindfulness corresponds to Pāli word of satipatṣtṣhana. This word is made up of the two components: sati and upatṣtṣhana. The former means attention or focus while the latter close to a certain place, together means focusing on a particular place.

  44. 44.

    ZJ 45, Vol. 1, p. 55.

  45. 45.

    Outfits that comply with Buddhist teaching, that is, kasṇāya (jiasha 袈裟).

  46. 46.

    The eyes of wisdom that read Buddhist teaching thoroughly.

  47. 47.

    Those with the power to practise Buddhist teaching.

  48. 48.

    Thinking complying with Buddhist teaching.

  49. 49.

    ZJ 477, Vol. 2, p. 35.

  50. 50.

    ZJ 1158, Vol. 2, p. 464.

  51. 51.

    ZJ 33, 517, Vol. 1, p. 36, Vol. 2, p. 81.

  52. 52.

    Facifaxiang is also translated as fasuifaxing 法隨法行. This compound word appears in numerous Buddhist texts, therefore attracting scholars’ attention. Facifaxiang corresponds to Pāli word dharmānudharmapratipatti. This word can be divided into the three parts: dharma, anudharma (secondary dharma) and pratipatti (practice of cultivation), combining to mean cultivation of dharma and secondary dharma. But some scholars argue that this compound word should be divided into two parts: faci and faxiang. The former one means all dharmas are arranged in hierarchical order, while the latter being going towards nirvānṇa. There is also a saying that the compound word should be made up of the two parts: facifa and xiang, meaning that practice of cultivation had a complete order, one dharma following another, and the order could not be reversed. Or using the first word dharma to mean nirvāºa to be attained, anudharma is the method of cultivation that leads to the attainment. The author is fully aware of these explanations. He only attempted to follow the pattern of Chinese language and context to offer his own suggestion. See Wen Jin Ke 溫金柯, “Reexamination of the interpretation of facifaxiang (fasuifaxing) 法次法向(法隨法行)詮釋的再斟酌,” in Contemplation over Life Direction生命方向的省思 (Taipei, Xiandaichan Press, 1994), pp. 151–159; Xiang Yin善因, “Examination of the word dharmānudharmapratipatti法隨法行 (dharmānudharmapratipatti) 詞義之探討,” Satyābhisamaya (A Buddhist Studies Quarterly) 正觀 Vol. 7(1998), pp. 64–85.

  53. 53.

    According to ZJ, there are four kinds of nutriment: material (daily meals), contact (happiness and feelings of the hearts and minds), volition (yearning for survival) and consciousness (grasping the power of heart and mind and the main body of the spirit). See ZJ 489, Vol. 2, p. 49.

  54. 54.

    ZJ 487, Vol. 2, p. 53.

  55. 55.

    According to the note in Foguangshan Buddhist Electronic Etext 佛光電子大藏經, fashu corresponds to Pāli word sanṇ khātadhamma. Sanṇ khāta, past participle of sanṇ khāyati, bearing the two meanings: calculation and enlightenment. It is believed that sanṇ khātadhamma refers to “awakened one”. According to this chapter, using the meaning of calculation, the compound word fashu can be understandable and meets the original meaning of the word shu.

  56. 56.

    ZJ 27, Vol. 1, p. 28–29.

  57. 57.

    ZJ 34, Vol. 1, p. 36.

  58. 58.

    ZJ 731, 935, 1617, Vol. 2, p. 192, 359, Vol. 3, 428.

  59. 59.

    ZJ 1370, 13296, Vol. 3, pp. 261, 647.

  60. 60.

    For this interpretation, see Zhu Jianing 竺家寧, Study on Chinese terminology 漢語詞彙學 (Taipei, Wunan Books Publishing Ltd., 1999), p. 57. Jingfa could be also understood as teaching covered in Buddhist texts. In this case, jingfai is a modifier-head compound word.

  61. 61.

    ZJ 42, Vol. 1, p. 48.

  62. 62.

    ZJ 1180, Vol. 3, p. 19.

  63. 63.

    ZJ 816, Vol. 2, p. 294.

  64. 64.

    ZJ 1644, Vol. 3, p. 464.

  65. 65.

    ZJ 169, Vol. 1, p. 172.

  66. 66.

    ZJ 167, Vol. 1, p. 169.

  67. 67.

    ZJ 32, 137,150, 304, 390, Vol. 1, pp. 35, 128, 145, 276, 334.

  68. 68.

    ZJ 314, Vol. 1, p. 288.

  69. 69.

    ZJ 1670–1682, Vol. 3, p. 490.

  70. 70.

    For discussion on “quasi-suffix”, see Chen Guanlui 陳光磊, Study on Chinese Morphology 漢語詞法論 (Shanghai: Xuelin Press, 1994), p. 20.

  71. 71.

    ZJ 168, Vol. 1, p. 170.

  72. 72.

    ZJ 163, Vol. 1, p. 164.

  73. 73.

    ZJ 297, Vol. 1, p. 272.

  74. 74.

    ZJ 474, Vol. 2, p. 26.

  75. 75.

    ZJ 1098, 12872, Vol. 2, p. 421, Vol. 3, p. 528.

  76. 76.

    ZJ 1104, 1168, Vol. 2, p. 431, Vol. 3, p. 4.

  77. 77.

    ZJ 752, 905, Vol. 2, pp. 208, 332.

  78. 78.

    ZJ 406, Vol. 1, p. 383.

  79. 79.

    ZJ 13401, Vol. 3, p. 763.

  80. 80.

    ZJ 13238, Vol. 3, p. 574.

  81. 81.

    ZJ 479, 1065, Vol. 2, pp. 38–39, 398.

  82. 82.

    ZJ 178, 474, Vol. 1, p. 205.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Chinese Civilisation Centre, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloom, Hong Kong

    Tai Shing Wut

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  1. City University of Hong Kong, Chinese Civilisation Centre, Tat Chee Avenue, Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR

    Pei-kai Cheng

  2. City University of Hong Kong, Chinese Civilisation Centre, Tat Chee Avenue, Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR

    Ka Wai Fan

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Acknowledgement

The work described in this chapter was fully supported by a grant from the Research Grants Council of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China (Project No. CityU 149109).

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Wut, T.S. (2013). Investigating the Meaning of Dharma “Fa” (法): With Chinese Saṃyuktāgama as the Subject. In: Cheng, Pk., Fan, K. (eds) New Perspectives on the Research of Chinese Culture. Chinese Culture, vol 1. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-4021-78-4_5

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