Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

An Applied Ontological Semantic Microtheory of Adjective Meaning for Natural Language Processing

  • Published:
Machine Translation

Abstract

This paper is devoted to determining and representing adjectival meaning. The results form a microtheory in the Mikrokosmos project on computational ontological semantics. Mikrokosmos microtheories cover the meaning of lexical categories in several languages, the ontological model used as metalanguage for language description and syntax–semantics mapping as well as the actual process of text analysis and generation. This paper presents a critical analysis of the body of knowledge on adjectives amassed to date in linguistics and presents a detailed, practically tested methodology and heuristics for the acquisition of adjectival lexical entries for computational applications. The work is based on the set of over 6,000 English and about 1,500 Spanish adjectives obtained from task- oriented corpora.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Aarts, Joannes M. G. A.: 1976, Adjective-Noun Combinations: A Model for Their Semantic Interpretation, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Nijmegen, The Netherlands.

    Google Scholar 

  • Abraham, Werner: 1970, ‘Passiv und Verbableitung auf e.-able, dt.-bar’, Folia Linguistica 4, 38–52.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ageno, Alicia, Irene Castelló, M. A. Martí, German Rigau, Francesc Ribas, Horacio Rodriguez, Mariona Taulé, and Felisa Verdejo: 1992, ‘SEISD: An Environment for Extraction of Semantic Information from On-Line Dictionaries’, in Third Conference on Applied Natural Language Processing, Trento, Italy, pp. 253–255.

  • Ahlswede, Thomas E., Martha Evans, K. Rossi, and Judith Markowitz: 1985, ‘Building a Lexical Database by Parsing Webster's Seventh Collegiate Dictionary’, in Advances in Lexicology, Proceedings, Waterloo, Ont., pp. 65–78.

  • Alston, William P.: 1964, Philosophy of Language, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Heritage: 1992, The American Heritage Electronic Dictionary of the English Language, 3rd Edition, New York: Houghton Mifflin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Amsler, Robert A.: 1982, ‘Computational Lexicology: A Research Program’, in AFIPS. Proceedings of the National Computer Conference, Vol. 5, 657–663.

    Google Scholar 

  • Amsler, Robert A.: 1984a, ‘Lexical Knowledge Bases’, in 10th International Conference on Computational Linguistics, 22nd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Proceedings of Coling84, Stanford, CA, pp. 458–459.

  • Amsler, Robert A.: 1984b, ‘Machine-Readable Dictionaries’, in M.E. Williams (ed.), Annual Review of Information Science and Technology, Vol. 19, pp. 161–209, Knowledge Industry Publications, White Plains, NY.

    Google Scholar 

  • Apresjan Yu. D., I. A. Mel'čuk, and A. K. Žolkovskij: 1969, ‘Semantics and Lexicography: Towards a New Type of Unilingual Dictionary’, in F. Kiefer (ed.), Studies in Syntax and Semantics, pp. 1–33, Reidel, Dordrecht.

  • Apresjan Yu. D., I. A. Mel'čuk, and A. K. Žolkovskij: 1973, ‘Materials for an Explanatory Combinatory Dictionary of Modern Russian’, in F. Kiefer (ed.), Trends in Soviet Theoretical Linguistics, pp. 411–438, D. Reidel, Dordrecht.

    Google Scholar 

  • Åqvist, L.: 1979, Predicate Calculi with Adjectives and Nouns, mimeo, University of Stuttgart.

  • Arnauld et Lancelot: 1660, Grammaire Générale et Raisonnée, ed. 1676. Facsimile Edition: Republications Paulet, Paris, 1969.

    Google Scholar 

  • Babby, Leonard: 1971, A Transformational Analysis of Russian Adjectives, Ph.D. Thesis, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Babby, Leonard: 1973, ‘The Deep Structure of Adjectives and Participles in Russian’, Language 49, 349–360.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bache, Carl: 1978, The Order of Pre-modifying Adjectives in Present-Day English, Odense University Press, Odense.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bally, Charles: 1909, Traité de Stylistique Française, no publisher, Heidelberg.

  • Bally, Charles 1944, Linquistique Générale et Linguistique Française, 2nd ed., Francke, Berne, Switzerland.

  • Bartning, Inge: 1976, Remarques sur la Syntaxe et la Sémantique des Pseudo-Adjectifs Dénominaux en Français, Institut d'Études Romanes, University of Stockholm, Sweden.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bartning, Inge: 1976/80, ‘Remarques sur les pseudoadjectifs dénominaux en français’, Acta Universitatis Stockholmiensis 10.

  • Bartning, Inge, and Michèle Noailly: 1993, ‘Du relationnel au qualificatif: Flux et reflux’, Information grammaticale 42, 27–32.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bartsch, Renate: 1976, The Grammar of Adverbials, North Holland, New York.

  • Barwise, Jon, and John Perry: 1983, Situations and Attitudes, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beale, Stephen, Sergei Nirenburg, and Kavi Mahesh: 1995, ‘Semantic Analysis in the Mikrokosmos Machine Translation Project’, in Proceedings of the Second Symposium on Natural Language Processing (SNLP-95), Bangkok, Thailand.

  • Beckwith, Richard, Christiane Fellbaum, Derek Gross, and George A. Miller: 1991, WordNet: A Lexical Database Organized on Psycholinguistic Principles, in Zernik, pp. 211–232.

  • Benson, Morton: 1985, ‘Lexical Combinability’, Papers in Linguistics 18, 3–15.

    Google Scholar 

  • Benson, Morton, Evelyn Benson, and Robert Ilson: 1986, Lexicographic Description of English, John Benjamins, Amsterdam.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berman, Arlene: 1973, Adjectives and Adjective Complement Constructions in English. Ph.D.Thesis, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berman, Arlene: 1974, Adjectives and Adjective Complement Constructions in English, Technical Report No. NSF-29, Department of Linguistics, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bernstein, Judy B.: 1995, ‘Adjectives and Their Complements’, Paper presented at the 1995 Linguistics Society of America Annual Meeting, New Orleans.

  • Bierwisch, Manfred: 1967, ‘Some Semantic Universals of German Adjectivals’, Foundations of Language 5, 1–36.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bierwisch, Manfred: 1989, ‘Focussing on Dimensional Adjectives: Introductory Remarks’, in Manfred Bierwisch and Ewald Lang (eds), Dimensional Adjectives and Conceptual Interpretation, pp. 1–11, Springer-Verlag, Berlin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Black, Max: 1954/55, ‘Metaphor’, Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society 55, 273–294.

    Google Scholar 

  • Black, Max: 1979, ‘More About Metaphor’, in Andrew Ortony (ed.), Metaphor and Thought, pp. 19–45, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bloomfield, Leonard: 1935, Language, George Allen and Unwin, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boguraev, Bran, and Ted Briscoe: 1987, ‘Large Lexicons for Natural Language Processing: Exploring the Grammar Coding System for LDOCE’, Computational Linguistics 13, 203–218.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boguraev, Bran, and Edward J. Briscoe: 1989, Computational Lexicography for Natural Language Processing, Longman, London.

  • Boguraev, Bran, Ted Briscoe, J. Carroll, D. Carter, and C. Grover: 1987, ‘The Derivation of a Grammatically Indexed Lexicon from the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English’, in 25th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics, Stanford, CA, pp. 193–200.

  • Boguslawski, Andrzej: 1975, ‘Measures are Measures: in Defense of the Diversity of Comparatives and Positives’, Linguistische Berichte 36, 1–9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bolinger, Dwight: 1965, ‘Atomization of Meaning’, Language 41, 555–573.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bolinger, Dwight: 1967a, ‘Adjectives in English: Attribution and Predication’, Lingua 18, 1–34.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bolinger, Dwight: 1967b, Adjective Comparison: A Semantic Scale, Journal of English Linguistics 1, 2–10.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bolinger, Dwight: 1972, Degree Words, Mouton, The Hague.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bonnard, H.: 1960, ‘L'attribut se rapport-t-il au nom?’, Le français moderne 23, 241–248.

    Google Scholar 

  • Borodina, M. A.: 1963, ‘L'adjectif et les rapports entre sémantique et grammaire en français moderne’, Le français moderne 31, 193–198.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bosredon, A.: 1988, ‘Un adjectif de trop, l'adjectif de relation’, Information grammaticale 37, 3–7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bouillon, Pierrette, and Viegas, Evelyne: 1994, ‘A Semi-Polymorphic Approach to the Interpretation of Adjectival Constructions: A Cross-Linguistic Perspective’, in Proceedings of the Sixth EURALEX International Congress, Amsterdam, pp. 36–44.

  • Bourdieu, Pierre: 1977, Outline of a Theory of Practice, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bresnan, Joan: 1973, ‘Syntax of the Comparative Construction in English’, Linguistic Inquiry 4, 275–345.

    Google Scholar 

  • Briscoe, Edward J., Ann Copestake, and Bran Boguraev: 1990, ‘Enjoy the Paper: Lexical Semantics via Lexicology’, in COLING-90: Papers presented to the 13th International Conference on Computational Linguistics, Helsinki, Finland, Vol. 3, pp. 42–47.

  • Briscoe, Ted, Valeria de Paiva, and Ann Copestake (eds): 1993, Inheritance, Defaults, and the Lexicon, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Calzolari, Nicoletta: 1984, ‘Machine-Readable Dictionaries, Lexical Database and the Lexical System’, in 10th International Conference on Computational Linguistics, 22nd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Proceedings of Coling84, Stanford, CA, p. 460.

  • Carlson, Lynn, and Sergei Nirenburg: 1990, World modeling for NLP, Technical Report CMU-CMT-90–121, Center for Machine Translation, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Charles, W. G. and G. A. Miller: 1989, ‘Contexts of Antonymous Adjectives’, Applied Psycholinguistics 10, 357–375.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chierchia, Gennaro, and Sally McConnell-Ginet: 1990, Meaning and Grammar: An Introduction to Semantics, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chodorow, Martin S., Roy J. Byrd, and George E. Heidorn: 1985, ‘Extracting Semantic Hierarchies from a Large On-Line Dictionary’, in 23rd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics, Chicago, pp. 299–304.

  • Chomsky, Noam: 1957, Syntactic Structures, Mouton, The Hague.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chomsky, Noam: 1965. Aspects of the Theory of Syntax, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Claude, P.: 1981, ‘La relation adjectif-nom en français et en anglais’, Information grammaticale 11, 11–18.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clements, J. Clancy: 1988, ‘The Semantics and Pragmatics of the Spanish hCOPULA + ADJECTIVEi Construction’, Linguistics 26, 770–822.

    Google Scholar 

  • Congleton, J.E., J. Edward Gates, and Donald Holar (eds): 1979, Papers in Lexicography in Honor of Warren N. Cordell, The Dictionary Society of America-Indiana State University, Terre Haute, IN.

    Google Scholar 

  • Conte, Maria-Elisabeth: 1973, ‘L'aggettivo in Italiano - Problemi sintattici’, Storia Linguistica dell'Italia nel Novecento.

  • Copestake, Ann: 1990, ‘An Approach to Building the Hierarchical Element of a Lexical Knowledge Base from a Machine Readable Dictionary’, in Proceedings of the First International Workshop on Inheritance in Natural Language Processing, Toulouse, France, pp. 19–29.

  • Copestake, Ann: 1992, ‘The ACQUILEX LKB: Representation Issues in Semi-Automatic Acquisition of Large Lexicons’, in Third Conference on Applied Natural Language Processing, Trento, Italy, pp. 88–96.

  • Cresswell, Max: 1985, Adverbial Modification, Reidel, Dordrecht.

  • Cullingford, Richard E. and Mark A. Graves: 1987, ‘Knowledge Acquisition for NLP: Two Prospects’, in Proceedings of Natural Language Planning Workshop, Blue Mountain Lake, NY, pp. 47–55.

  • Cygan, Jan: 1975, ‘Synthetical Comparatives in English’, Bulletin de la Societé Polonaise de Linguistique 33, 53–57.

    Google Scholar 

  • Damerau, Fred J.: 1975, On “fuzzy” Adjectives, IBM Research Report RC 5340. Thomas J. Watson Research Center, Yorktown Heights, NY.

    Google Scholar 

  • Danks, J. H. and S. Glucksberg: 1971, ‘Psychological Scaling of Adjective Order’, Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 10, 63–67.

    Google Scholar 

  • Danks, J. H. and M. A. Schwenk: 1972, ‘Prenominal Adjective Order and Communication Context’, Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 11, 183–187.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davidson, Donald: 1978, ‘What Metaphors Mean’, Critical Inquiry 5. Reprinted in Sheldon Saks (ed.), On Metaphor, pp. 29–45, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1979.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davidson, Donald: 1985, ‘Adverbs of Action’, in Bruce Vermazen and Merrill Hintikka (eds), Essays on Davidson: Actions and Events, Clarendon Press, Oxford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davidson, Donald and Gilbert Harman (eds): 1972, Semantics of Natural Language, D. Reidel, Dordrecht.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dell, F.: 1970, Les règles phonologiques tardives et la morphologie dérivationnelle du français, Ph.D. Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA.

    Google Scholar 

  • de Swart, Henriëtte: 1991, Adverbs of Quantification: A Generalized Quantifier Approach, Ph.D. Thesis, Groningen University, The Netherlands.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dirven, Rene (ed.) 1989, User's Grammar of English: Word, Sentence, Text, Interaction, Peter Lang, Berlin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dixon, Robert M.W.: 1982, ‘Where Have All the Adjectives Gone?’, in Robert M.W. Dixon, Where Have All the Adjectives Gone? and Other Essays in Semantics and Syntax, pp. 1–62, Mouton, Berlin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dorr, Bonnie: 1993, Machine Translation: A View from the Lexicon, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dowty, David: 1972, ‘Temporally Descriptive Adjectives’, in John Kimball (ed.), Syntax and Semantics, Vol. I, pp. 51–62, Seminar Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Entich, Veronika: 1975, ‘Pragmatische Restriktionen der Bedeutung von graduierbaren Adjektiven und Vergleichsätzen’, in Veronika Entich and Peter Finke (eds), Beiträge zur Grammatik und Pragmatik, Skriptor, Kronberg, Ts.

  • Farwell, David, Louise Guthrie, and Yorick A. Wilks: 1993, ‘Automatically Creating Lexical Entries for ULTRA, a Multilingual MT System’, Machine Translation 8, 127–146.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ferris, D. Connor: 1993, The Meaning of Syntax: A Study in the Adjectives of English, Longman, London.

  • Fillmore, Charles J.: 1978, ‘On the Organization of Semantic Information in the Lexicon’, in Donna Farkas, Wesley M. Jacobsen, and Karol W. Todrys (eds), Papers from the Parasession on the Lexicon, pp. 148–173, Chicago Linguistic Society, Chicago.

    Google Scholar 

  • Forsgren, Mats: 1993, ‘L'adjectif et la fonction d'apposition: Observations syntaxiques, sémantiques et pragmatiques’, Information grammaticale 58, 15–22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fox, E. A., R. C. Wohlwend, P. R. Sheldon, Q. F. Chen, and R. K. France: 1986, Building the CODER Lexicon: The Collins English Dictionary and its Adverb Definitions, Technical Report 86–23, Department of Computer Science, Virginia Polytechnical Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frawley, William: 1992, Linguistic Semantics, Laurence Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frege, Gottlob: 1963, ‘Compound Thoughts’, Mind 72, 1–17.

    Google Scholar 

  • Giatigny, M.: 1966, ‘L'adjectif en apposition se rapporte-t-il au nom?’, Le français moderne, 264–279.

  • Givón, Talmy: 1970, ‘Notes on the Semantic Structure of English Adjectives’, Language 46, 816–837.

    Google Scholar 

  • Givón, Talmy: 1984, Syntax: A Functional-Typological Introduction, Vol. I, John Benjamins, Amsterdam.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gnutzman, Claus: 1974, ‘Zur Graduierbarkeit von Adjektiven in Englischen’, Linguistische Berichte 31(74), 1–12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goes, Jan: 1993, ‘A la recherche d'une définition de l'adjectif’, Information grammaticale 58, 11–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goyvaerts, D. L.: 1968, ‘An Introductory Study on the Ordering of a String of Adjectives in Present-Day English’, Philologica Pragensia 11, 12–28.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grechko, B. A.: 1962, ‘Parallel'nye imena prilagatel'nye na -icheskij i -ichnyj v sovremennom russkom literaturnom jazyke’, Leksikograficheskij sbornik 5, 156–166.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greimas, A. J.: 1966, Sémantique structurelle, Larousse, Paris.

  • Grevisse, M.: 1969, Le bon usage: grammaire française, Hâtier-Gembloux, Paris.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gross, Derek, Ute Fischer, and George A. Miller: 1989, ‘The Organization of Adjectival Meanings’, Journal of Memory and Language 28, 92–106.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grundt, L.O.: 1970, Études sur l'adjectif invarié en français, Universitetsforlaget, Bergen/Oslo.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hall, Fitzedward: 1877, On English Adjectives in-ABLE with Special Reference to RELIABLE, Trübner, London.

  • Halliday, M.A.K.: 1985, An Introduction to Functional Grammar, Edward Arnold, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hankamer, J.: 1973, 'Why There are Two than's in English, in Papers from the Ninth Regional Meeting of the Chicago Linguistic Society, Chicago, IL.

  • Hartmann, R.R.K. (ed.): 1983, Lexicography: Principles and Practice, Academic Press, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hayakawa, S.I.: 1975, Language in Thought and Action, 3rd ed. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hetzron, Robert: 1978, ‘On the Relative Order of adjectives’, in Seiler (1978b), 165–184.

  • Hietbrinck, M.: 1985, ‘A propos du statut exceptionnel des adjectifs dénominaux’, Langue française 66, 41–53.

    Google Scholar 

  • Higginbotham, J.: 1989, ‘Elucidations of Meaning’, Linguistics and Philosophy 12, 465–517.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hjelmslev, Louis: 1928, Principes de grammaire générale, no publisher, Copenhague.

  • Hjelmslev, Louis: 1959, ‘Pour une sémantique structurale’, in Louis Hjelmslev, Essais Linguistiques, Cercle Linguistique de Copenhague, Copenhague.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoepelman, Jaap: 1983, ‘Adjectives and Nouns: A New Calculus’, in Rainer Bäuerle, Christoph Schwarze, and Arnim von Stechow (eds), Meaning, Use, and Interpretation of Language, pp. 190–220, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Householder, Fred, and Sol Saporta (eds): 1967, Problems in Lexicography, 2nd ed., Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN.

    Google Scholar 

  • Howden, Marcia S.: 1979, ‘Structure in the Lexicon: The French Adjectives neuf and nouveau’, in Linda R. Waugh and Frans Van Coetsem (eds), Contribution to Grammatical Studies, pp. 70–92, Brill, Leiden.

  • Ilson, Robert (ed.): 1986, Lexicography: An Emerging International Profession. The Fulbright Colloquium on Lexicography, Manchester University Press, Manchester and The Fulbright Commission, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Iwanska, Lucja: 1995, ‘Semantics, Pragmatics, and Context of Intensional Negative Adjectives: Not a Toy Problem’, Paper presented at the SIGLEX Workshop on Context in Natural Language Processing, Montréal, Québec.

  • Jackendoff, Ray: 1983, Semantics and Cognition, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jamrozik, Elzbieta: 1989, ‘Description et appréciation dans les adjectifs qualificatifs’, Acta Universitatis Wratislaviensis 1064, 129–134.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jespersen, Otto: 1929, The Philosophy of Grammar, Allen & Unwin, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jespersen, Otto: 1942, A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 6: Morphology, Munksgaard, Copenhagen.

  • Justeson, John S. and Slava M. Katz: 1991, ‘Co-occurrences of antonymous adjectives and their contexts’, Computational Linguistics 17, 1–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Justeson, John S. and Slava M. Katz: 1995, ‘Principled Disambiguation: Discriminating Adjective Senses with Modified Nouns’, Computational Linguistics 21, 1–27.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kalik, A.: 1967, ‘L'expression des rapports de déterminé à déterminant/adjectifs de relation’, Le français moderne 35, 270–285.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kamp, H.: 1975, ‘Two Theories of Adjectives’, in Edward L. Keenan (ed.), Formal Semantics of Natural Languages, pp. 123–155, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Katlinskaja, L.P.: 1977, ‘Ob odnoj kategorii slov v razrjade otnositel'nykh prilagatel'nykh sovremennogo russkogo jazyka’, in Grammatika i norma, pp. 92–106, Nauka, Moskva.

  • Katz, Jerrold: 1972, 'Theory and the Meaning of good, Journal of Philosophy 61, 736–760.

    Google Scholar 

  • Katz, Jerrold J.: 1972/1974, Semantic Theory, Harper and Row, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Katz, Jerrold J.: 1978, ‘Effability and Translation’, in F. Guenthner and M. Guenthner-Reutter (eds), Meaning and Translation: Philosophical and Linguistic Approaches, Duckworth, London, pp. 191–234.

  • Katz, Jerrold J. and Jerry A. Fodor: 1963, ‘The Structure of a Semantic Theory’, Language 39, 170–210.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keenan, Edward L. and L.M. Faltz: 1985, Boolean Semantics for Natural Language, D. Reidel, Dordrecht.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kiefer, Ferenc: 1978, 'Adjectives and Presuppositions, Theoretical Linguistics 5, 135–173.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kim, Stanislav L.: 1986, ‘Semantika otnositel'nykh prilagatel'nykh russkogo i uzbekskogo jazykov’, Fan, Tashkent.

  • Kipfer, Barbara Ann: 1984, Workbook on Lexicography, University of Exeter.

  • Kjellmer, Göran: 1986, ‘Legible but not Readable: On the Semantics of English Adjectives in -ble’, Studia Neophilologica 58, 11–38.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klein, E.: 1980, A Semantics for Positive and Comparative Adjectives’, Linguistics and Philosophy 4, 1–45.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klein, E.: 1981, ‘The Interpretation of Adjectival, Nominal, and Adverbial Comparatives’, in J.A.G. Groenendijk, T.M.V. Janssen, and M.B.J. Stokhof (eds), Formal Methods in the Study of Language, Mathematical Centre Tracts, Amsterdam, 381–398.

    Google Scholar 

  • Knight, Kevin: 1993, ‘Building a Large Ontology for Machine Translation’, in Proceedings of the ARPA Human Language Technology Workshop, Princeton, N.J.

  • Kratochvíl, P.: 1968, The Chinese Language Today, Hutchinson, London.

  • Lahav, Ran: 1989, ‘Against Compositionality: The Case of Adjectives’, Philosophical Studies 57, 261–279.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lakoff, George: 1966, Stative Adjectives and Verbs in English, Report No. NSF-17, Harvard Computational Laboratory, Cambridge, MA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lakoff, George: 1987, Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things, Chicago University Press, Chicago.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lakoff, George and Mark Johnson: 1980, Metaphors We Live By, Chicago University Press, Chicago.

    Google Scholar 

  • Landau, Sidney I.: 1984, Dictionaries: The Art and Craft of Lexicography, Charles Scribner's Sons, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Landheer, Ronald and Julia C. Szirmai: 1988, ‘Les effets sémantiques de la recatégorisation de l'adjectif’, in Ronald Landheer (ed.), Aspect de linguistique française: Hommage à Q. I. M. Mok, pp. 119–140, Rodopi, Rodopi, Amsterdam.

    Google Scholar 

  • Langacker, Ronald W.: 1987, Foundations of Cognitive Grammar, Vol. 1, Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Larson, Richard: 1983, Restrictive Modification: Relative Clauses and Adverbs, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI.

    Google Scholar 

  • Larson, Richard 1995, ‘Olga is a Beautiful Dancer’, Paper presented at the 1995 Linguistics Society of America Annual Meeting, New Orleans.

  • Larson Richard and G. Segal: 1995, Knowledge of Meaning, Bradford Books/MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lees, Robert B.: 1960, ‘The Grammar of English Nominalizations’, International Journal of American Linguistics 26, Supplement, Publication 12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lees, Robert B.: 1961, ‘Grammatical Analysis for the English Comparative Construction’, Word 17, 171–185.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leitzke, E.: 1989, (De)nominale Adjektive im heutigen Englisch, Niemeyer, Tübingen.

  • Levi, Judith N.: 1973, ‘Where Do All These Other Adjectives Come from?’, in Papers from the Ninth Regional Meeting of the Chicago Linguistic Society, Chicago, pp. 332–345.

  • Levi, Judith N.: 1975, The Syntax and Semantics of Nonpredicating Adjectives in English, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Chicago.

  • Levi, Judith N.: 1978, The Syntax and Semantics of Complex Nominals, Academic Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levin, Beth: 1991, ‘Building a Lexicon: The Contribution of Linguistics’, International Journal of Lexicography 4, 205–226.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levin, Beth: 1992, Towards a Lexical Organization of English Verbs, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levin, Lori and Sergei Nirenburg: 1994, ‘Construction-Based MT Lexicons’, in Antonio Zampolli, Nicoletta Calzolari, and Martha Palmer (eds), Current Issues in Computational Linguistics: In Honour of Don Walker, Kluwer, Dordrecht and Giardini, Pisa, pp. 321–338.

  • Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk, Barbara, and Jerzy Tomaszczyk: 1990, ‘Introduction’, in Tomaszczyk and Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk, pp. xi–xxvii.

  • Lewis, David: 1972, ‘General Semantics’, in Davidson and Harman (1972), pp. 169–218; reprinted in Partee (1976), pp. 1–50.

  • Ljung, M.: 1970, English Denominal Adjectives, Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis, Göteborg.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lord, John B.: 1970, ‘Sequence Clusters of Pre-Nominal Adjectives’, Journal of English Language 4, 57–69.

    Google Scholar 

  • Loux, M.J.: 1978, Substance and Attribute: A Study in Ontology, D. Reidel, Dordrecht.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lujan, M.: 1980, Sintaxis y semantica del adjetivo, Cátedra, Madrid, Spain.

  • Lyons, John: 1977, Semantics, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mahesh, Kavi: 1996, ‘Ontology Development for Machine Translation: Ideology and Methodology’, Memoranda in Computer and Cognitive Science MCCS-96–292, Computing Research Laboratory, New Mexico State University. Las Cruces, NM.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mahesh, Kavi and Sergei Nirenburg: 1995, ‘A Situated Ontology for practical NLP’, Paper presented at the Workshop on Basic Ontological Issues in Knowledge Sharing, Montréal, Québec.

  • Marchand, Hans: 1966, 'On Attributive and Predicative Derived Adjectives and Some Problems Related to Their Distinction, Anglia 84, 131–149.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marchand, Hans: 1969, The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation, 2nd ed., Beck, München.

  • Markowitz, Judith, Thomas Ahlswede, and Martha Evens: 1986, ‘Semantically Significant Patterns in Dictionary Definitions’, in 24th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics, New York, pp. 112–119.

  • Martin, J.E.: 1969a, ‘Some Competence-Process Relationships in Noun Phrases with Prenominal and Postnominal Adjectives’, Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 8, 471–480.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martin, J.E.: 1969b, ‘Semantic Determinants of Preferred Adjective Order’, Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 8, 697–704.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martin, J.E.: 1970, ‘Adjective Order and Juncture’, Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 9, 379–384.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martin R.: 1986, ‘Le vague et la sémantique de l'adjectif. Réflexions sur l'adjectif antéposé en français’, Quaderni di Semantica 7, 246–263.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marx, Wolfgang: 1977, ‘Die Kontextabhängigkeit der assoziativen Bedeutung’, Zeitschrift für experimentelle und angewandte Psychologie 24, 455–462.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marx, Wolfgang: 1983, ‘The Meaning-Confining Function of the Adjective’, in Gert Rickheit and Michael Bock (eds), Psycholinguistic Studies in Language Processing,Walter de Gruyter, Berlin, pp. 70–81.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maurel, J.-P.: 1993, ‘Des adjectifs de relation en Latin’, Information grammaticale 58, 23–26.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCawley, James D.: 1986, ‘What Linguists Might Contribute to Dictionary Making if They Could Get Their Act Together’, in Peter C. Bjarkman and Victor Raskin (eds), The Real-World Linguist: Linguistic Applications in the 1980s, Ablex, Norwood, NJ, pp. 1–18.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCawley, James D.: 1988, The Syntactic Phenomena of English, Vol. II., Chicago University Press, Chicago.

    Google Scholar 

  • McDavid, Raven I. and Audrey R. Duckert (eds): 1973, Lexicography in English, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mélis-Puchulu, Agnès: 1991, ‘Les adjectifs dénominaux: Des adjectifs de “relation”’, Lexique 10, 33–60.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mélis-Puchulu, Agnès: 1993, ‘Les adjectifs en -esque: D'abord des adjectifs construits’, Information grammaticale 58, 33–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meus, V.: 1975, ‘English Adjectives in -able’, Studia Germanica Gandensia 16, 35–59.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, Ingrid, Boyan Onyshkevych, and Lynn Carlson: 1990, ‘Lexicographic Principles and Design for Knowledge-Based Machine Translation’, Technical Report CMU-CMT-90–118, Center for Machine Translation, Carnegie Melon University, Pittsburgh, PA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, George A. and Christiane Fellbaum: 1991, ‘Semantic Networks of English’, Cognition 41, 197–229.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, George A., Christiane Fellbaum, J. Kegl, and K. Miller: 1988, ‘Wordnet: An Electronic Lexical Reference System Based on Theories of Lexical Memory’, Revue Québecoise de Linguistique 17, 181–211.

    Google Scholar 

  • Montague, Richard: 1974, Formal Philosophy: Selected Papers of Richard Montague, edited by Richmond Thomason, Yale University Press, New Haven, CT.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mounin, George: 1973, Dictionnaire de la linguistique, Presses Universitaires de France, Paris.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ney, J.W.: 1981, ‘Optionality and Choice in the Selection of Order of Adjectives in English’, General Linguistics 23, 94–128.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nirenburg, Sergei: 1980, Application of Semantic Methods in Description of Russian Morphology, Ph.D. Thesis, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem.

  • Nirenburg, Sergei (ed.): 1987, Machine Translation: Theoretical and Methodological Issues, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nirenburg, Sergei, Jaime Carbonell, Masaru Tomita, and Kenneth Goodman: 1992, Machine Translation: A Knowledge-Based Approach, Morgan Kaufmann, San Mateo, CA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nirenburg, Sergei and Christine Defrise: 1991, ‘Practical Computational Linguistics’, in Rod Johnson and Michael Rosner (eds), Computational Linguistics and Formal Semantics, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 223–256.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nirenburg, Sergei and Lori Levin: 1992, ‘Syntax-Driven and Ontology-Driven Lexical Semantics’, in Pustejovsky and Bergler (1992), pp. 5–20.

  • Nirenburg, Sergei and Victor Raskin: 1986, ‘A Metric for Computational Analysis of Meaning: Toward an Applied Theory of Linguistic Semantics’, 11th International Conference on Computational Linguistics: Proceedings of Coling `86, Bonn, pp. 338–340.

  • Nirenburg, Sergei and Victor Raskin: 1987a, ‘The Analysis Lexicon and the Lexicon Management System’, Computers and Translation 2, 177–188.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nirenburg, Sergei and Victor Raskin: 1987b, ‘The Subworld Concept Lexicon and the Lexicon Management System’, Computational Linguistics 13, 276–289.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nirenburg, Sergei and Victor Raskin: 1996, ‘Ten Choices for Lexical Semantics’, Memoranda in Computer and Cognitive Science MCCS-96–304, Computing Research Laboratory, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, NM.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nirenburg, Sergei, Victor Raskin, and Boyan Onyshkevych: 1995, ‘Apologiae ontologiae’ in Judith Klavans, Bran Boguraev, Lori Levin, and James Pustejovsky (eds), Symposium: Representation and Acquisition of Lexical Knowledge: Polysemy, Ambiguity, and Generativity, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, pp. 95–107.

    Google Scholar 

  • Noailly, Michèle: 1993, ‘Sur un étrange privilège des adjectifs au comparative’, Information grammaticale 58, 47–51.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nunberg, Geoffrey and Annie Zaenen: 1992, ‘Systematic Polysemy in Lexicology and Lexicography’, in Proceedings of the EURALEX, Tampere, Finland.

  • Okada, Naoko: 1990, ‘Semantic Analysis of Basic Adjectives by Concept Formation Process’, in Proceedings of the Fourteenth International Congress of Linguists, Berlin, GDR, pp. 1225–1227.

    Google Scholar 

  • Onyshkevych, Boyan and Sergei Nirenburg: 1992, ‘Lexicon, Ontology, and Text Meaning’, in Pustejovsky and Bergler (1992), pp. 289–303.

  • Onyshkevych, Boyan and Sergei Nirenburg: 1994, ‘The Lexicon in the Scheme of KBMT Things’, Memoranda in Computer and Cognitive Science MCCS-94–277, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, NM.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ostler, Nicholas and B.T.S. Atkins: 1992, ‘Predictable Meaning Shift: Some Linguistic Properties of Lexical Implication Rules’, in Pustejovsky and Bergler (1992), pp. 87–100.

  • Parsons, Terence: 1972, ‘Some Problems Concerning the Logic of Grammatical Modifiers’, Synthese 21, 320–334.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parsons, Terence: 1980, ‘Modifiers and Quantifiers in Natural Language’, Canadian Journal of Philosophy 6, Supplement, pp. 29–60.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parsons, Terence: 1985, ‘Underlying Events in the Logical Analysis of English’, in Ernest LePore and Brian P. McLaughlin (eds), Actions and Events: Perspectives on the Philosophy of Donald Davidson, pp. 235–267, Blackwell, Oxford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parsons, Terence: 1990. Events in the Semantics of English: A Study of Subatomic Semantics, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Partee, Barbara H. (ed.): 1976, Montague Grammar, Academic Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pavlov, V. M.: 1960, ‘O razrjadakh imen prilagatel'nykh’, Voprosy jazykoznanija 2, 65–70.

    Google Scholar 

  • Picabia, Lélia: 1976, ‘Sur trois classes d'adjectifs: en marge de la transformation dite “tough movement”’, in J.-C. Chevalier and M. Gross (eds), Méthodes en grammaire française, 121–129, Klincksieck, Paris.

    Google Scholar 

  • Picabia, L.: 1978, Les constructions adjectivales en français: systématique transformationnelle, Droz, Genève.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pinkham, Jessie E.: 1982, The Formation of Comparative Clauses in French and English, Indiana University Linguistics Club, Bloomington, IN.

    Google Scholar 

  • Popper, Karl: 1972, Objective Knowledge: An Evolutionary Approach, Clarendon, Oxford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Post, Michael: 1981, Comparatives of Identity in English: A Semantic Study, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Wroclawskiego, Wroclaw.

    Google Scholar 

  • Postal, Paul M.: 1972, ‘The Derivation of English Pseudo-adjectives’, Research Report, IBMThomas J. Watson Research Center, Yorktown Heights, N.Y.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pustejovsky, James: 1991, ‘The Generative Lexicon’, Computational Linguistics 17, 409–441.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pustejovsky, James (ed.): 1993, Semantics and the Lexicon, Kluwer, Dordrecht.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pustejovsky, James: 1995, The Generative Lexicon, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pustejovsky, James and Sabine Bergler (eds): 1992, Lexical Semantics and Knowledge Representation, Springer-Verlag, Berlin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Quine, Willard Van Orman: 1960, Word & Object, M.I.T. Press, Cambridge, MA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Quirk, Randolph and Sidney Greenbaum: 1973, A University Grammar of English, Longman, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leach, and Jan Svartvik: 1985, A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language, Longman, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Raskin, Victor: 1971, K teorii jazukovykh podsistem, Moscow State University Press, Moscow.

    Google Scholar 

  • Raskin, Victor: 1981, ‘How to Handle Fake Guns’, Meeting Handbook, Annual Meeting of the Linguistics Society of America, New York.

  • Raskin, Victor: 1986, ‘Script-based Semantic Theory’, in Donald G. Ellis and William A. Donohue (eds), Contemporary Issues in Language and Discourse Processes, pp. 23–61, Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ.

    Google Scholar 

  • Raskin, Victor: 1987a, ‘Linguistics and Natural Language Processing’, in Nirenburg (1987), pp. 42–58.

  • Raskin, V.: 1987b, ‘What is There in Linguistic Semantics for Natural Language Processing?’, in Proceedings of Natural Language Planning Workshop, Blue Mountain Lake, NY, pp. 78–96.

  • Raskin, Victor: 1990, ‘Ontology, Sublanguage, and Semantic Networks in Natural Language Processing’, in Martin C. Golumbic (ed.), Advances in Artificial Intelligence: Natural Language and Knowledge-Based Systems, pp. 114–128, Springer-Verlag, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Raskin, Victor: 1994, ‘Frawley: Linguistic Semantics. A Review article’, Language 70, 552–556.

    Google Scholar 

  • Raskin, Victor, Donalee H. Attardo, and Salvatore Attardo: 1994a, ‘The SMEARR Semantic Database: An Intelligent and Versatile Resource for the Humanities’, in Don Ross and Dan Brink (eds), Research in Humanities Computing 3, pp. 109–124, Clarendon Press, Oxford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Raskin, Victor, Salvatore Attardo, and Donalee H. Attardo: 1994b, ‘Augmenting Formal Semantic Representation for NLP: The Story of SMEARR’, Machine Translation 9, 81–98.

    Google Scholar 

  • Raskin, Victor, and Sergei Nirenburg: 1995, ‘Lexical Semantics of Adjectives: A Microtheory of Adjectival Semantics, Memoranda in Computer and Cognitive Science MCCS-95–288’, Computing Research Laboratory, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, NM.

    Google Scholar 

  • Raskin, Victor, and Sergei Nirenburg: 1996a, ‘Adjectival Modification in Text Meaning Representation’, in COLING-96: The 16th International Conference on Computational Linguistics, Copenhagen, Denmark, pp. 842–847.

  • Raskin, Victor, and Sergei Nirenburg: 1996b, ‘Lexical Rules for Deverbal Adjectives’, in Breadth and Depth of Semantic Lexicons: Proceedings of a Workshop Sponsored by the Special Interest Group on the Lexicon of the Association for Computational Linguistics, Santa Cruz, CA, pp. 89–104.

  • Raskin, Victor, and Irwin Weiser: 1987, Language and Writing: Applications of Linguistics to Rhetoric and Composition, Ablex, Norwood, NJ.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rey, Alain: 1977, Le lexique: Images et modèles du dictionnaire à la lexicologie, Armand Colin, Paris.

    Google Scholar 

  • Read, Allen Walker: 1973, ‘Approaches to Lexicography and Semantics’, in Thomas E. Sebeok (ed.), Current Trends in Linguistics, Vol. X, pp. 145–205, Mouton, The Hague.

    Google Scholar 

  • Riegel, Martin: 1985, L'adjectif attribut, Presses Universitaires de France, Paris.

    Google Scholar 

  • Riegel, Martin: 1993, ‘Grammaire et référence: à propos du statut sémantique de l'adjectif qualificatif’, Information grammaticale 58, 5–10.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rivara, René: 1975, ‘How Many Comparatives are There?’, Linguistics 163, 35–51.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rivara, René: 1993, ‘Adjectifs et structure sémantiques scalaires’, Information grammaticale 58, 40–46.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ross, John R.: 1969, ‘Adjectives as Noun Phrases’, in David A. Reibel and Sanford A. Schane (eds), Modern Studies in English: Readings in Transformational Grammar, pp. 352–360, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rusiecki, Jan: 1985, Adjectives and Comparison in English: A Semantic Study, Longman, Harlow, Essex.

    Google Scholar 

  • Saint-Dizier, Patrick and Evelyne Viegas: 1995, Computational Lexical Semantics, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sanfilippo, Antonio and Victor PoznaŃski: 1992, ‘The Acquisition of Lexical Knowledge from Combined Machine-readable Sources’, in Third Conference on Applied Natural Language Processing, Trento, Italy, pp. 80–88.

  • Sanfilippo, Antonio, Ted Briscoe, Ann Copestake, Maria Antonia Martí, Mariona Taulé, and Antonietta Alonge: 1992, ‘Translation Equivalence and Lexicalization in the ACQUILEX LKB’, in Quatrième colloque international sur les aspects théoriques et méthodologiques de la traduction automatique, Fourth International Conference on Theoretical and Methodological Issues in Machine Translation: Méthodes empiristes versus méthodes rationalistes en TA, Empiricist vs. Rationalist Methods in MT, TMI-92, Montréal, Canada, pp. 1–11.

  • Sapir, Edward: 1944, ‘On Grading: a Study in Semantics’, Philosophy of Science 2, 93–116.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sarma, C.R.S.: 1991, ‘A Critique of Dixon's ‘Universal Semantic Types’ Hypothesis’, International Journal of Dravidian Linguistics 20, 94–103.

    Google Scholar 

  • Searle, John R.: 1969, Speech Acts, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Searle, John R.: 1979, ‘Metaphor’, in John R. Searle (ed.), Expression and Meaning, pp. 76–116, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seiler, Hansjakob: 1978a, ‘Determination: A Functional Dimension for Interlanguage Comparison’, in Seiler (1978b), pp. 301–328.

  • Seiler, Hansjakob (ed.): 1978b, Language Universals, Günter Narr, Tübingen.

  • Seymour, Deborah Mandelbaum: 1995, ‘NewWomen's Suitcases: The Possessive-adjective Switch’, Paper presented at the 1995 Linguistics Society of America Annual Meeting, New Orleans.

  • Shramm, Aleksandr N.: 1979, Ocherki po semantike kachestvennykh prilagatel'nykh (na materiale sovremennogo russkogo jazyka), Izdatel'stvo Leningradskogo Gosudarstvennogo Universiteta, Leningrad.

    Google Scholar 

  • Siegel, Muffy E.A.: 1976a, Capturing the Adjective, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Siegel, Muffy E.A.: 1976b, ‘Capturing the Russian Adjective’, in Partee (1976), pp. 293–309.

  • Siegel, Muffy E.A.: 1979, ‘Measure Adjectives in Montague Grammars’, in Steven Davis and Marianne Mithun (eds), Linguistics, Philosophy, and Montague Grammar, pp. 223–261, University of Texas Press, Austin, TX.

    Google Scholar 

  • Slator, Brian M. and Yorick A. Wilks: 1987, ‘Towards Semantic Structures from Dictionary Entries’, in Proceedings of the Second Annual Rocky Mountain Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Boulder, CO, pp. 85–96.

  • Slocum, Jonathan and Martha G. Morgan: 1986, ‘The Role of Dictionaries and Machine-readable Lexicons in Translation’, unpublished manuscript.

  • Smadja, Frank: 1991, ‘Macrocoding the Lexicon with Co-occurrence Knowledge’, in Zernik (1991), pp. 165–189.

  • Spang-Hanssen, Ebbe: 1990, ‘La sémantique des adjectifs spatieux’, Revue Romane 25, 292–309.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sproat, R. and C. Shih: 1988, ‘Prenominal Adjectival Ordering in English and Mandarin’, in Proceedings of the North Eastern Linguistic Society (NELS) 18, 465–488.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spejewski, Beverly: 1995, ‘Two Classes of Frequency Adverbs’, Paper presented at the 1995 Linguistics Society of America Annual Meeting, New Orleans.

  • Stalnaker, Robert and Richard Thomason: 1973, ‘A Semantic Theory of Adverbs’, Linguistic Inquiry 4, 195–220.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stati, S.: 1979, La sémantique des adjectifs: Essai d'analyse componentielle appliquée aux langues romanes, J. Fayard, Saint-Sulpice-de-Faviers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stephany, U.: 1969, Adjektivische Attributionkonstruktionen des Französischen, W. Fink, München.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strawson, Peter F.: 1959, Individuals: An Essay in Descriptive Metaphysics, Lowe & Brydone, Thetford, Norfolk.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sussex, Ronald: 1974, ‘The Deep Structure of Adjectives in Noun Phrases’, Journal of Linguistics 10, 111–131.

    Google Scholar 

  • Svensén, Bo: 1993, Practical Lexicography: Principles and Methods of Dictionary-Making, Oxford University Press, Oxford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Szalay, L.B. and J. Deese: 1978, Subjective Meaning and Culture: An Assessment Through Word Association, Laurence Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tamba-Mecz, I.: 1980, ‘Sur quelques propriétés de l'adjectif de relation’, Travaux de linguistique et de litérature 18, 119–132.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tarski, Alfred: 1956, ‘The Semantical Conception of Truth’, in Leonard Linsky (ed.), Semantics and the Philosophy of Language, pp. 13–47, University of Illinois Press, Urbana, IL.

    Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, J.R.: 1992, ‘Old Problems: Adjectives in Cognitive Grammar’, Cognitive Linguistics 3, 1–37.

    Google Scholar 

  • Teller, Paul: 1969, ‘Some Discussion and Extension of M. Bierwisch'sWork on German Adjectivals’, Foundations of Language 5, 185–217.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, Sandra A.: 1988, ‘A Discourse Approach to the Cross-linguistic Category ‘atadjective'’, in John A. Hawkins (ed.), Explaining Language Universals, pp. 167–185, Basil Blackwell, Oxford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tomaszczyk, Jerzy and Barbara Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk (eds): 1990, Meaning and Lexicography, John Benjamins, Amsterdam.

    Google Scholar 

  • Topolinska, Zuzanna: 1975, ‘An Attempt Toward a Syntactic Description and Semantic Interpretation of the So-called Grammatical Category of Degree’, Linguistica Silesiana 1, 55–62.

    Google Scholar 

  • Trofimov, M.I.: 1972, ‘O formal'no-semanticheskoj klassifikatsii prilagatel'nykh v russkom jazyke (k postanovke voprosa)’, in Problemy strukturnoj lingvistiki-1971, Academy of Sciences, Moscow.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tversky, Amos and Daniel Kahnemann: 1983, ‘Probability, Representativeness, and the Conjunction Fallacy’, Psychological Review 90, 293–315.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ultan, R.: 1972, ‘Some Features of Basic Comparative Constructions’, Stanford Working Papers on Language Universals 9, 117–162.

    Google Scholar 

  • Urdang, L.: 1968, The Random House Dictionary of the English Language, Random House, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • van Schooneveld, C. H.: 1969, ‘On the Word Order in Modern Russian’, International Journal of Slavic Linguistics and Poetics 3, 4–44.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vendler, Zeno: 1963, ‘The Grammar of Goodness’, The Philosophical Review 72, 446–465.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vendler, Zeno: 1968, Adjectives and Nominalization, Mouton, The Hague.

    Google Scholar 

  • Viegas, Evelyne and Victor Raskin: 1997, ‘Lexicon Ontology Development for Machine Translation: Ideology and Methodology’, Memoranda in Computer and Cognitive Science MCCS-97–313, New Mexico State University, Computing Research Laboratory.

  • Vinogradov, Viktor V.: 1947, Russkij jazyk: Grammaticheskoe uchenie o slove, Uchpedgiz, Moskva/Leningrad.

  • Vol'f, Elena M.: 1978, Grammatika i semantika prilagatel'nykh, Nauka, Moskva.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walker, Donald E.: 1984, ‘Panel Session: Machine-readable Dictionaries’, in 10th International Conference on Computational Linguistics, 22nd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Proceedings of Coling84, Stanford, CA, p. 457.

  • Walker, Donald E.: 1987, ‘Knowledge Resource Tools for Accessing Large Text Files’, in Nirenburg (1987), pp. 247–261.

  • Walker, Donald E. and Robert A. Amsler: 1986, ‘The Use of Machine-readable Dictionaries in Sublanguage Analysis’, in Ralph Grishman and Richard Kittredge (eds), Analyzing Language in Restricted Domains, pp. 69–83, Erlbaum, Hillsdale, N.J.

    Google Scholar 

  • Warren, Beatrice: 1984, Classifying Adjectives, Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis, Göteborg, Sweden.

    Google Scholar 

  • Waugh, Linda R.: 1976, ‘The Semantics and Paradigmatics of Word Order’, Language 52, 82–107.

    Google Scholar 

  • Waugh, Linda R.: 1977, A Semantic analysis of Word Order: Position of the Adjective in French, Brill, Leiden.

  • Webster: 1963, Webster's 7th Collegiate Dictionary, Springfield, MA, Merriam-Webster.

  • Weinreich, Uriel: 1962, ‘Lexicographic Definition in Descriptive Semantics’, in Householder and Saporta (1967), pp. 25–43.

  • Weinreich, Uriel: 1963, ‘Lexicography’, in Thomas A. Sebeok (ed.), Current Trends in Linguistics, Vol. I, pp. 60–93, Mouton, The Hague.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weinreich, Uriel: 1966, ‘Explorations in Semantic Theory’, in T.A. Sebeok (ed.), Current Trends in Linguistics, Vol. III, pp. 395–477, Mouton, The Hague.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wey F.: 1848, Nouveau, nouvelle, avant ou après le substantif. Remarques sur la langue française, I, Didot, Paris.

  • Whaley, Lindsay J.: 1995, ‘The Discourse Function of Hellenistic Greek Adjectives’, Paper presented at the 1995 Linguistics Society of America Annual Meeting, New Orleans.

  • Wheeler, Samuel: 1972, ‘Attributes and Their Modifiers’, Noûs 4, 310–334.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whorf, Benjamin Lee: 1956, Language, Thought, and Reality: Selected Writings of Benjamin Lee Whorf, ed. by J. B. Carroll, Wiley, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wierzbicka, Anna: 1985, Lexicography and Conceptual analysis, Karoma, Ann Arbor, MI.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wierzbicka, Anna: 1986/88, ‘What's a Noun? (or: How do Nouns Differ from Adjectives?)’ Studies in Language 10, 353–389; repr. in Anna Wierzbicka, The Semantics of Grammar, pp. 463–497 John Benjamins, Amsterdam.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilks, Yorick A., Dan Fass, Cheng-Ming Guo, James E. M. McDonald, Tony Plate, and Brian M. Slator: 1987, ‘A Tractable Machine Dictionary as a Resource for Computational Semantics’ in Proceedings of Natural Language Planning Workshop, Blue Mountain Lake, N.Y., pp. 95–123.

  • Zernik, Uri (ed.): 1991, Lexical Acquisition: Exploiting On-line Resources to Build a Lexicon, Laurence Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zgusta, Ladislav: 1971, Manual of Lexicography, Academia, Prague/Mouton, The Hague.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zgusta, Ladislav (ed.): 1980, Theory and Method in Lexicography: Western and Non-Western Perspectives, Hornbeam Press, Columbia, S.C.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhurinskij, Alfred N.: 1971, ‘O semanticheskoy strukture prostranstvennykh prilagatel'nykh’ in Semanticheskaja struktura slova, pp. 196–224, Nauka, Moskva.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ziff, Paul: 1960, Semantic Analysis, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, N.Y.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Natural Language Processing Laboratory, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, 47907-1336, USA

    Victor Raskin

  2. Computing Research Laboratory, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, NM, 88003, USA

    Sergei Nirenburg

Authors
  1. Victor Raskin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Sergei Nirenburg
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Raskin, V., Nirenburg, S. An Applied Ontological Semantic Microtheory of Adjective Meaning for Natural Language Processing. Machine Translation 13, 135–227 (1998). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1008039100776

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1008039100776

Search

Navigation