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Abstract
Phonation types, or contrastive voice qualities, are minimally produced using complex movements of the vocal folds, but may additionally involve constriction in the supraglottal and pharyngeal cavities. These complex articulations in turn produce a multidimensional acoustic output that can be modeled in various ways. In this study, I investigate whether the psychoacoustic model of voice by Kreiman et al. (2014) succeeds at distinguishing six phonation types of !Xóõ. Linear discriminant analysis is performed using parameters from the model averaged over the entire vowel as well as for the first and final halves of the vowel. The results indicate very high classification accuracy for all phonation types. Measures averaged over the vowel’s entire duration are closely correlated with the discriminant functions, suggesting that they are sufficient for distinguishing even dynamic phonation types. Measures from all classes of parameters are correlated with the linear discriminant functions; in particular, the “strident” vowels, which are harsh in quality, are characterized by their noise, changes in spectral tilt, decrease in voicing amplitude and frequency, and raising of the first formant. Despite the large number of contrasts and the time-varying characteristics of many of the phonation types, the phonation contrasts in !Xóõ remain well differentiated acoustically.
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References
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- 1
Sample modal, breathy, and pharyngealized vowels, as well as harsh vowels, can be found on the website for Ladefoged (2005): http://www.phonetics.ucla.edu/vowels/chapter14/_xoo.html.
- 2
Words with breathy-pharyngealized-creaky vowels include the following (using the orthography in Traill, 1994b): ǀqá̰h’le “phalanges of an ungulate” (p. 61); !gà̰h’m “erythema” (p. 80); !gō̰h’u-ka “juvenile Bushveld lizard” (p. 81); ǁnà̰h’ɲa “turn over” (p. 124); ǂā̰h’a “restrain” (p. 130); tà̰h’a “young of […] ostrich” (p. 155); tsā̰h’li “split moist […] pods” (variant of pharyngealized-creaky tsā̰’li; p. 162); and dzā̰h’nu “Fork-marked sand snake” (p. 164). Only some of these words could plausibly be considered breathy-pharyngealized vowels followed by a glottal stop; see also a similar discussion of breathy-creaky vowels by Naumann (2016).
- 3
Most likely, it is the aryepiglottic folds that are vibrating, given that these bodies connect the arytenoids to the epiglottis.
- 4
Traill (1986, p. 129) states that the “sphincteric” phonation responsible for the quality of these vowels differs specifically from Laver’s (1980) view of “harsh voice,” which involves vibration of the ventricular folds. However, Traill (1985, p. 80) stated earlier that ventricular fold vibration “probably” occurs with strident vowels. And as J. Esling (pers. commun.) notes, both views are consistent with how the laryngeal articulator performs as a sphincter, compacting posteroanteriorly and vertically to compress the ventricular folds in harsh voice and engaging vibration of the aryepiglottic folds in a more constricted state, as is the case with “sphincteric” phonation in !Xóõ (Esling et al., 2005).
- 5
Supplementary materials can be found at http://idiom.ucsd.edu/∼mgarellek/files/SupplementaryFiles_!Xoo.html.
- 6
The LDA was conducted using the lda() function available from the MASS package (Venables & Ripley, 2002).
- 7
Mixed-effects models were run in R using the lmer() function in the lme4 package (Bates et al., 2014).
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