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Abstract
The aim of this article is to check whether the phenomena that were indexicalised in flamenco singing during the early stages of the professionalisation of singing (seseo, fricatisation, aspiration and elision of sounds, rhotacism) have been preserved over the generations. Above all, we want to know whether these phenomena have survived in this period and in the new varieties of the genre, such as flamenco fusion. For this work we elaborated and transcribed two flamenco corpora from the analysis of 44 h of recordings and a total of 94,978 lemmas with phonetic phenomena. The results have shown that, indeed, in flamenco there are indexical phonetic phenomena that have been registered as representative marks of the cante. In fact, the cantaores themselves, regardless of their origin, use the same sounds. However, a decrease in the use of phonetic phenomena of the genre in New Flamenco has been observed, especially in the younger generations.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank my colleague Rocio Cruz Ortiz for her participation in this research. She reviewed the first phonetic transcriptions to corroborate the viability of the data. Thank you for your time and collaboration.
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Author contributions: This article was written by a single author.
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Conflict of interest statement: The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.
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Ethics statement: The author does not have to make any ethical statements in this research. We have not needed to meet ethical requirements with humans. We also did not need to have certificates or permissions for personal use from the corpus informants.
Appendix 1. Differences between Traditional Flamenco and New Flamenco
| Traditional flamenco | New flamenco | |
|---|---|---|
| Origin | Traditional influence. It is related to the origins of flamenco singing. | Influence of musical cultures. Young cantaores have easier access to them (pop, rock, jazz, Caribbean music, reggaetón…). |
| Performance | In flamenco singing “voice” is the main element. | Cante is subordinate to instrumentation: ethnic instruments and music, jazz double bass, saxophone, piano.… |
| Themes | Pain, sorrow (representation of the flamenco “queijo”). Also, festive themes. | Fresh and catchy tunes, banal themes that lack the metaphors of flamenco poetry. These kinds of forms only appear in the adaptations. |
| Composition and types of cante | Composition: individual couplets. | Standardised, linear songs or musical themes with verses and choruses with a common, simple thread adapted to recordings. |
| Cantaor on stage | Individual. | Group; creative and theatrical performance. |
Appendix 2. Pronunciation results of /s/ according to geographical areas in the corpus
| Zone 1 [θ] como [s] (seseante) |
Zone 2 [s] como [θ] (ceceante) |
Zone 3 [s] como [s] [θ] como [θ] distinction /s/ – /θ/ |
|
|---|---|---|---|
| 3G | Córdoba, Sevillaa | Algeciras, Chipiona, Jerez, Puebla de Cazalla, La Línea de la Concepción | Almería, Badajoz, Barcelona, Burgos, Elche, Granada, Huelva, Jaén, Linares, Los Santos de Maimona (Badajoz), Toledo, Málagaa |
| 2G | Cádiz, Córdoba, Granada, Linares, Málaga, Sevilla | Chiclana, Estepona, Jerez, La Línea, San Fernando | Alicante, Almería, Badajoz, Barcelona, Ceuta, Huelva, Madrid, Mérida, Valencia, Zafra |
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aIndicates that the distribution of hiss, lisp or distinction in this area is influenced by sociolinguistic factors.
Appendix 3. Results of logistic regression
| Traditional Flamenco | New Flamenco | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| One-level analysis of response “pronuntiation” with predictor(s): phenomena:generation (5.67e-12) + phenomena:origin (1.03e-06) + phenomena:gender (1.24e-06) + phenomena [main effect, not tested] + gender [main effect, not tested] + gen [main effect, not tested] + origin [main effect, not tested] | One-level analysis of response “pronuntiation” with predictor(s): phenomena:generation (2.4e-43) + phenomena:origin (4.57e-27) + phenomena:gender (6.62e-17) + phenomena [main effect, not tested] + gender [main effect, not tested] + generation [main effect, not tested] + origin [main effect, not tested] | ||||||
| logodds | Tokens | Weight | logodds | Tokens | Weight | ||
| Phenomena | Phenomena | ||||||
|
|
|||||||
| /x/ aspiration | 2.212 | 1,256 | 0.901 | /s/ lenition | 1.158 | 4,473 | 0.761 |
| /s/ lenition | 1.276 | 7,649 | 0.782 | Seseo | 0.743 | 1,070 | 0.678 |
| Seseo | −0.037 | 2,080 | 0.491 | /x/ aspiration | 0.468 | 571 | 0.615 |
| Rhotacism | −1.185 | 1,668 | 0.234 | Fricatisation | −0.399 | 305 | 0.402 |
| Fricatisation | −2.267 | 418 | 0.094 | Rhotacism | −0.735 | 878 | 0.324 |
|
|
|||||||
| Phenomena + generation | Phenomena + generation | ||||||
|
|
|||||||
| Seseo: 3G | 0.574 | 933 | 0.64 | Fricatisation: 3G | 0.989 | 155 | 0.729 |
| /x/ aspiration: 2G | 0.422 | 637 | 0.604 | Seseo: 2G | 0.762 | 426 | 0.682 |
| Fricatisation: 2G | 0.199 | 288 | 0.55 | /x/: 2G | 0.479 | 244 | 0.618 |
| Rothacism: 3G | 0.192 | 739 | 0.548 | /s/: 3G | 0.286 | 2,615 | 0.571 |
| /s/ lenition: 2G | 0.145 | 4,163 | 0.536 | Rhotacism: 3G | 0.144 | 479 | 0.536 |
| /s/ lenition: 3G | −0.145 | 3,486 | 0.464 | Rhotacism: 2G | −0.144 | 399 | 0.464 |
| Rothacism: 2G | −0.192 | 929 | 0.452 | /s/: 2G | −0.286 | 1,858 | 0.429 |
| Fricatisation: 3G | −0.199 | 130 | 0.45 | /x/: 3G | −0.479 | 327 | 0.382 |
| /x/ aspiration: 3G | −0.422 | 619 | 0.396 | Seseo: 3G | −0.762 | 644 | 0.318 |
|
|
|||||||
| Phenomena: gender | Phenomena: gender | ||||||
|
|
|||||||
| Seseo: male | 0.367 | 1,057 | 0.591 | Fricatisation: male | 0.505 | 137 | 0.624 |
| /x/: female | 0.288 | 629 | 0.571 | Rhotacism: male | 0.151 | 432 | 0.538 |
| Rothacism: female | 0.134 | 854 | 0.533 | Seseo: female | 0.106 | 627 | 0.526 |
| Fricatisation: male | 0.109 | 224 | 0.527 | /s/: male | 0.057 | 2,268 | 0.514 |
| /s/: female | 0.054 | 3,895 | 0.514 | /x/: female | 0.038 | 262 | 0.509 |
| /s/: male | −0.054 | 3,754 | 0.486 | /x/: male | −0.038 | 309 | 0.491 |
| Fricatisation: female | −0.109 | 194 | 0.473 | /s/: female | −0.057 | 2,205 | 0.486 |
| Rothacism: male | −0.134 | 814 | 0.467 | Seseo: male | −0.106 | 443 | 0.474 |
| /x/: male | −0.288 | 627 | 0.429 | Rhotacism: female | −0.151 | 446 | 0.462 |
|
|
|||||||
| Phenomena: origin | Phenomena: origin | ||||||
|
|
|||||||
| Rothacism: not Andalusian | 0.998 | 0.731 | 0.731 | /s/: Andalusian | 0.359 | 2,643 | 0.589 |
| Fricatisation: Andalusian | 0.454 | 0.612 | 0.612 | Rothacism: not Andalusian | 0.161 | 533 | 0.54 |
| Fricatisation: not Andalusian | 0.421 | 0.604 | 0.604 | /x/: Andalusian | 0.146 | 342 | 0.536 |
| /x/: Andalusian | 0.067 | 0.517 | 0.517 | Seseo: Andalusian | 0.118 | 679 | 0.529 |
| /x/: not Andalusian | 0.057 | 0.514 | 0.514 | Fricatisation: Andalusian | 0.102 | 151 | 0.525 |
| /s/: not Andalusian | 0.057 | 0.5 | 0.5 | Fricatisation: no Andalusian | −0.102 | 154 | 0.475 |
| seseo: not Andalusian | 0.057 | 0.5 | 0.5 | Seseo: not Andalusian | −0.118 | 391 | 0.471 |
| /x/: not Andalusian | 0.057 | 0.469 | 0.469 | /x/: not Andalusian | −0.146 | 229 | 0.464 |
| Rothacism: Andalusian | 0.057 | 0.373 | 0.383 | Rothacism: Andalusian | −0.161 | 345 | 0.46 |
| misc.1: N = 13,071; g.l = 21; intercepta = −5.776; proporción global: 0.915 | misc.2: Log.likelihood = −2,871.511; AIC: 5,785.021; AICc = 5,785.092; Dxy = 0.669 R2 = 0.333 | misc.1: N = 8,315; g.l = 24; intercepta = −0.576; proporción global: 0.64 | misc.2: Log.likelihood = −3,912.187; AIC: 7,872.375; AICc = 7,872.519; Dxy = 0.616 R2 = 0.355 | ||||
Appendix 4. Spectrograms
![Illustration 1. José Mercé. Example of the pronunciation of /k/ velar plosive. In the illustration we see the onset of voicing in the words “quiero” [ˈkjeɾo] (“I want”) and “que” [ke] (“to”).](/document/doi/10.1515/phon-2023-0003/asset/graphic/j_phon-2023-0003_fig_014.jpg)
Illustration 1. José Mercé. Example of the pronunciation of /k/ velar plosive. In the illustration we see the onset of voicing in the words “quiero” [ˈkjeɾo] (“I want”) and “que” [ke] (“to”).
![Illustration 2. Camarón de la Isla. Example of the post-aspirated pronunciation of /k/ – [kh]. In the illustration we observe a longer than usual duration between the onset of voicing (VOT) and the plosive bar in the word “me quiere” [me ˈkhjere] (“she love me”).](/document/doi/10.1515/phon-2023-0003/asset/graphic/j_phon-2023-0003_fig_015.jpg)
Illustration 2. Camarón de la Isla. Example of the post-aspirated pronunciation of /k/ – [kh]. In the illustration we observe a longer than usual duration between the onset of voicing (VOT) and the plosive bar in the word “me quiere” [me ˈkhjere] (“she love me”).
![Illustration 3. El Capullo de Jerez. Example of the post-aspirated pronunciation of /k/ – [kh]. In the illustration we observe a longer than usual duration between the onset of voicing (VOT) and the plosive bar in the word “la quiere” [la ˈkhjere] (“He loves her”).](/document/doi/10.1515/phon-2023-0003/asset/graphic/j_phon-2023-0003_fig_016.jpg)
Illustration 3. El Capullo de Jerez. Example of the post-aspirated pronunciation of /k/ – [kh]. In the illustration we observe a longer than usual duration between the onset of voicing (VOT) and the plosive bar in the word “la quiere” [la ˈkhjere] (“He loves her”).
Illustration 4. Alba Molina. The spectrogram shows the stop bar at the beginning of the segment and the subsequent friction.
![Illustration 5. Niña Pastori. Example of the affricate pronunciation when she pronouncing the word “puchero” [puˈʃeɾo] (“soup”). In the spectrogram we see the friction of the segment [ʃ]. However, we do not find a previous stop bar.](/document/doi/10.1515/phon-2023-0003/asset/graphic/j_phon-2023-0003_fig_018.jpg)
Illustration 5. Niña Pastori. Example of the affricate pronunciation when she pronouncing the word “puchero” [puˈʃeɾo] (“soup”). In the spectrogram we see the friction of the segment [ʃ]. However, we do not find a previous stop bar.
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