Colin van Noordt
ABSTRACT
Research has been advancing on the development and deployment of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in public administrations. However, there is limited consensus and agreement on what is considered Artificial Intelligence, as different understandings and approaches in research and practice exist. This paper explores and compares the varying ways AI has been described and understood in previous Information Systems and eGovernment research. Following, a survey amongst Belgium civil servants is analysed to assess what they associate with the term Artificial Intelligence. The findings show that many civil servants tend to associate AI with being able to conduct intelligent tasks, have certain capabilities or are specific applications they are familiar with. Specific algorithms or learning methods, often included in research papers, are not associated with the term AI. These results show that researchers and policymakers may have opposite or even paradoxical views on what is or is not AI, which could have significant consequences for researching the adoption of AI in government, as well as comparing different research findings. In this respect, the paper proposes to use an integrative lens to study AI in government, by including different dimensions and understandings.
- Perrault, R., Shoham, Y., Brynjolfsson, E., Clark, J., Etchemendy, J., Grosz Harvard, B., Lyons, T., Manyika, J., Carlos Niebles, J., Mishra, S.: Artificial Intelligence Index 2019 Annual Report. , Stanford (2019).Google Scholar
- Alexopoulos, C., Lachana, Z., Androutsopoulou, A., Diamantopoulou, V., Charalabidis, Y., Loutsaris, M.A.: How Machine Learning is Changing e-Government. In: Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Theory and Practice of Electronic Governance - ICEGOV2019. pp. 354–363. ACM Press, New York, New York, USA (2019). https://doi.org/10.1145/3326365.3326412.Google ScholarDigital Library
- Bannister, F., Connolly, R.: The future ain't what it used to be: Forecasting the impact of ICT on the public sphere. Gov. Inf. Q. 37, 101410 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.giq.2019.101410.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Schank, R.C.: The Current State of AI: One Man's Opinion. Artif. Intell. 4, 1, 1–8 (1983). https://doi.org/10.1609/AIMAG.V4I1.382.Google ScholarDigital Library
- Barth, T.J., Arnold, E.: Artificial Intelligence and Administrative Discretion: Implications for Public Administration. Am. Rev. Public Adm. 29, 332–351 (1999).Google ScholarCross Ref
- Krafft, P.M., Young, M., Katell, M., Huang, K., Bugingo, G.: Defining AI in Policy versus Practice. (2019).Google Scholar
- Davison, J.: No, Machine Learning is not just glorified statistics, https://towardsdatascience.com/no-machine-learning-is-not-just-glorified-statistics-26d3952234e3, last accessed 2020/02/13.Google Scholar
- Vetrò, A., Santangelo, A., Beretta, E., De Martin, J.C.: AI: from rational agents to socially responsible agents. Digit. Policy, Regul. Gov. . 21, 291–304 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1108/DPRG-08-2018-0049.Google Scholar
- OECD: Hello, World: Artificial Intelligence and its use in the Public Sector. (2019). https://doi.org/10.1787/726fd39d-en.Google Scholar
- Craglia, M., Annoni, A., Benczur, P., Bertoldi, P., Delipetrev, P., De Prato, G., Feijoo, C., Fernandez-Macias, E., Gomez, E., Iglesias, M., Junklewitz, H., M, L.-C., Martens, B., Nascimento, S., Nativi, S., Polvora, A., Sanchez, I., Tolan, S., Tuomi, I., Fernandez Macias, E., Gomez, E., Iglesias, M., Junklewitz, H., López Cobo, M., Martens, B., Nascimento, S., Nativi, S., Polvora, A., Sanchez, I., Tolan, S., Tuomi, I., Vesnic Alujevic, L.: Artificial Intelligence - A European perspective. Publications Office, Luxembourg (2018). https://doi.org/10.2760/11251.Google Scholar
- Preece, A., Ashelford, R., Armstrong, H., Braines, D.: Hows and Whys of Artificial Intelligence for Public Sector Decisions: Explanation and Evaluation. (2018).Google Scholar
- Misuraca, G., van Noordt, C., Boukli, A.: The use of AI in public services. In: Proceedings of the 13th International Conference on Theory and Practice of Electronic Governance. pp. 90–99. ACM, New York, NY, USA (2020). https://doi.org/10.1145/3428502.3428513.Google ScholarDigital Library
- Wirtz, B.W., Weyerer, J.C., Geyer, C.: Artificial Intelligence and the Public Sector—Applications and Challenges. Int. J. Public Adm. 42, 596–615 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1080/01900692.2018.1498103.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Sousa, W.G. de, Melo, E.R.P. de, Bermejo, P.H.D.S., Farias, R.A.S., Gomes, A.O.: How and where is artificial intelligence in the public sector going? A literature review and research agenda. Gov. Inf. Q. 101392 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.giq.2019.07.004.Google Scholar
- Zhang, B., Dafoe, A.: Artificial Intelligence: American Attitudes and Trends. , Oxford (2019).Google Scholar
- Carrasco, M., Mills, S., Whybrew, A., Jura, A.: The Citizens Perspective on the Use of AI in Government. (2019).Google Scholar
- Medaglia, R., Gil-Garcia, J.R., Pardo, T.A.: Artificial Intelligence in Government: Taking Stock and Moving Forward. Soc. Sci. Comput. Rev. 089443932110340 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1177/08944393211034087.Google ScholarDigital Library
- Zuiderwijk, A., Chen, Y., Salem, F.: Implications of the use of artificial intelligence in public governance: A systematic literature review and a research agenda. Gov. Inf. Q. 101577 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.giq.2021.101577.Google Scholar
- Nemitz, P.: Constitutional democracy and technology in the age of artificial intelligence. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A Math. Phys. Eng. Sci. 376, 20180089 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2018.0089.Google Scholar
- Cath, C., Wachter, S., Mittelstadt, B., Taddeo, M., Floridi, L., Wachter, S., Taddeo, M., Mittelstadt, B., Cath, C.: Artificial Intelligence and the ‘Good Society’: the US, EU, and UK approach. Sci. Eng. Ethics. 24, 505–528 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11948-017-9901-7.Google Scholar
- Valle-Cruz, D., Criado, J.I., Sandoval-Almazán, R., Ruvalcaba-Gomez, E.A.: Assessing the public policy-cycle framework in the age of artificial intelligence: From agenda-setting to policy evaluation. Gov. Inf. Q. 37, 101509 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.giq.2020.101509.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Sun, T.Q., Medaglia, R.: Mapping the challenges of Artificial Intelligence in the public sector: Evidence from public healthcare. Gov. Inf. Q. 36, 368–383 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.giq.2018.09.008.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Torraco, R.J.: Writing Integrative Literature Reviews: Using the Past and Present to Explore the Future. Hum. Resour. Dev. Rev. 15, 404–428 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1177/1534484316671606.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Collins, C., Dennehy, D., Conboy, K., Mikalef, P.: Artificial intelligence in information systems research: A systematic literature review and research agenda. Int. J. Inf. Manage. 60, 102383 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2021.102383.Google ScholarDigital Library
- Russel, S.J., Norvig, P.: Artificial Intelligence - A modern approach. Pearson (2016).Google Scholar
- Müller, V.C., Bostrom, N.: Future progress in artificial intelligence. AI Matters. 1, 9–11 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1145/2639475.2639478.Google ScholarDigital Library
- Harrison, T.M., Luna-Reyes, L.F.: Cultivating Trustworthy Artificial Intelligence in Digital Government. Soc. Sci. Comput. Rev. 089443932098012 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1177/0894439320980122.Google ScholarDigital Library
- Wirtz, B.W., Weyerer, J.C., Geyer, C.: Artificial Intelligence and the Public Sector—Applications and Challenges, (2018). https://doi.org/10.1080/01900692.2018.1498103.Google Scholar
- Valle-Cruz, D., Alejandro Ruvalcaba-Gomez, E., Sandoval-Almazan, R., Ignacio Criado, J.: A Review of Artificial Intelligence in Government and its Potential from a Public Policy Perspective. In: Proceedings of the 20th Annual International Conference on Digital Government Research. pp. 91–99. ACM, New York, NY, USA (2019). https://doi.org/10.1145/3325112.3325242.Google ScholarDigital Library
- Cabrera-Sánchez, J.-P., Villarejo-Ramos, Á.F., Liébana-Cabanillas, F., Shaikh, A.A.: Identifying relevant segments of AI applications adopters – Expanding the UTAUT2’s variables. Telemat. Informatics. 58, 101529 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2020.101529.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Kaplan, A., Haenlein, M.: Siri, Siri, in my hand: Who's the fairest in the land? On the interpretations, illustrations, and implications of artificial intelligence. Bus. Horiz. 62, 15–25 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bushor.2018.08.004.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Desouza, K.C., Dawson, G.S., Chenok, D.: Designing, developing, and deploying artificial intelligence systems: Lessons from and for the public sector. Bus. Horiz. 63, 205–213 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bushor.2019.11.004.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Jiang, F., Jiang, Y., Zhi, H., Dong, Y., Li, H., Ma, S., Wang, Y., Dong, Q., Shen, H., Wang, Y.: Artificial intelligence in healthcare: Past, present and future. Stroke Vasc. Neurol. 2, 230–243 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1136/svn-2017-000101.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Baruffaldi, S., Van Beuzekom, B., Dernis, H., Harhoff, D., Rao, N., Rosenfeld, D., Squicciarini, M.: Identifying and measuring developments in artificial intelligence: Making the impossible possible. OECD Sci. Technol. Ind. Work. Pap. 1–68 (2020).Google Scholar
- Haenlein, M., Kaplan, A.: A brief history of artificial intelligence: On the past, present, and future of artificial intelligence. Calif. Manage. Rev. 61, 5–14 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1177/0008125619864925.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Russell, S.J., Norvig, P., Davis, E., Edwards, D.D., Forsyth, D., Hay, N.J., Malik, J.M., Mittal, V., Sahami, M., Thrun, S.: Artificial Intelligence A Modern Approach Third Edition. (2016).Google Scholar
- van Noordt, C., Misuraca, G.: Exploratory Insights on Artificial Intelligence for Government in Europe. Soc. Sci. Comput. Rev. 089443932098044 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1177/0894439320980449.Google ScholarDigital Library
- Scherer, M.U.: Regulating artificial intelligence systems: Risks, challenges, competencies, and strategies. Harv. J. Law Technol. 29, 353–400 (2016).Google Scholar
- Littman, M.L., Ajunwa, I., Berger, G., Boutilier, C.: Gathering Stregth, Gathering Storm: The One Hundred Year Study on Artificial Intelligence (AI100) 2021 Study Panel Report. Stanford Univ. Stanford, CA. (2021).Google Scholar
- Bostrom, N., Yudkowsky, E.: The ethics of artificial intelligence. In: Frankish, K. and Ramsey, W.M. (eds.) The Cambridge Handbook of Artificial Intelligence. pp. 316–334. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (2021). https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139046855.020.Google Scholar
- Pennachin, C., Goertzel, B.: Contemporary Approaches to Artificial General Intelligence. In: Goertzel, B. and Pennachin, C. (eds.) Cognitive Technologies. pp. 1–30. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, Heidelberg (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-68677-4_1.Google Scholar
- Gasser, U., Almeida, V.A.F.: A Layered Model for AI Governance. IEEE Internet Comput. 21, 58–62 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1109/MIC.2017.4180835.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Raaijmakers, S.: Artificial Intelligence for Law Enforcement: Challenges and Opportunities. IEEE Secur. Priv. 17, 74–77 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1109/MSEC.2019.2925649.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Kaplan, A., Haenlein, M.: Rulers of the world, unite! The challenges and opportunities of artificial intelligence. Bus. Horiz. 63, 37–50 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bushor.2019.09.003.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Sætra, H.S.: A shallow defence of a technocracy of artificial intelligence: Examining the political harms of algorithmic governance in the domain of government. Technol. Soc. 62, 101283 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2020.101283.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Agarwal, P.K.: Public Administration Challenges in the World of AI and Bots. Public Adm. Rev. 78, 917–921 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1111/puar.12979.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Rai, A., Constantinides, P., Sarker, S.: Next generation digital platforms: toward human-AI hybrids. MIS Q. 44, iii–ix (2019).Google Scholar
- Russel, S.J., Norvig, P. 1956-, Russell, S.J. 1962-, Norvig, P. 1956-, Russel, S.J., Norvig, P. 1956-: Artificial Intelligence - A modern approach. Pearson (2016).Google Scholar
- Grosz, B.J., Altman, R., Horvitz, E., Mackworth, A., Mitchell, T., Mulligan, D., Shoham, Y., Brynjolfsson, E., Calo, R., Etzioni, O., Hager, G., Hirschberg, J., Kalyanakrishnan, S., Leyton-Brown, K., Parkes, D., Press, W., Shah, J.: Standing Committee of the One Hundred Year Study of Artificial Intelligence. (2016).Google Scholar
- Bryman, A.: Social research methods. Oxford university press (2016).Google Scholar
- Thiel, V.: Research methods in public administration and public management. An introduction. Routledge (2014).Google ScholarCross Ref
- Green, B.P.: Ethical reflections on artificial intelligence. Sci. Fides. 6, 9–31 (2018). https://doi.org/10.12775/SetF.2018.015.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Makridakis, S.: The forthcoming Artificial Intelligence (AI) revolution: Its impact on society and firms, (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.futures.2017.03.006.Google Scholar
- Engin, Z., Treleaven, P.: Algorithmic Government: Automating Public Services and Supporting Civil Servants in using Data Science Technologies. Comput. J. 62, 448–460 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1093/comjnl/bxy082.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Ojo, A., Mellouli, S., Ahmadi Zeleti, F.: A Realist Perspective on AI-era Public Management*. In: 20th Annual International Conference on Digital Government Research on - dg.o 2019. pp. 159–170. ACM Press, New York, New York, USA (2019). https://doi.org/10.1145/3325112.3325261.Google ScholarDigital Library
- Misuraca, G., van Noordt, C.: AI Watch - Artificial Intelligence in public services. , Luxembourg (2020). https://doi.org/10.2760/039619.Google Scholar
- Renda, A.: Artificial Intelligence Ethics, governance and policy challenges. Report of a CEPS Task Force, February 2019. aei.pitt.edu (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/B0-12-227410-5/00027-2.Google Scholar
- Eggers, W., Schatsky, D., Viechnicki, P., Eggers, D.W.: AI-augmented government: Using cognitive technologies to redesign public sector work. (2017).Google Scholar
- European Commission: European enterprise survey on the use of technologies based on artificial intelligence. (2020). https://doi.org/10.2759/759368.Google Scholar
- Dwivedi, Y.K., Hughes, L., Ismagilova, E., Aarts, G., Coombs, C., Crick, T., Duan, Y., Dwivedi, R., Edwards, J., Eirug, A., Galanos, V., Ilavarasan, P.V., Janssen, M., Jones, P., Kar, A.K., Kizgin, H., Kronemann, B., Lal, B., Lucini, B., Medaglia, R., Le Meunier-FitzHugh, K., Le Meunier-FitzHugh, L.C., Misra, S., Mogaji, E., Sharma, S.K., Singh, J.B., Raghavan, V., Raman, R., Rana, N.P., Samothrakis, S., Spencer, J., Tamilmani, K., Tubadji, A., Walton, P., Williams, M.D.: Artificial Intelligence (AI): Multidisciplinary perspectives on emerging challenges, opportunities, and agenda for research, practice and policy. Int. J. Inf. Manage. 101994 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2019.08.002.Google Scholar
- Meijer, A., Webster, W.: Governing Smart Cities: Why Do Academics Need to Study Trendy Concepts? Inf. Polity. 24, 227–228 (2019). https://doi.org/10.3233/IP-190007.Google ScholarDigital Library
- Soe, R.M., Schuch de Azambuja, L., Toiskallio, K., Nieminen, M., Batty, M.: Institutionalising smart city research and innovation: from fuzzy definitions to real-life experiments. Urban Res. Pract. 00, 1–43 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1080/17535069.2021.1998592.Google Scholar
Index Terms
- Conceptual challenges of researching Artificial Intelligence in public administrations
Recommendations
Evaluating the impact of artificial intelligence technologies in public services: towards an assessment framework
ICEGOV '20: Proceedings of the 13th International Conference on Theory and Practice of Electronic GovernanceMany governments are exploring applications of AI technologies to improve their public services. While AI has the potential to radically improve governmental processes, services and policy, limited studies empirically validate the effects of the use of ...
Artificial Intelligence: Opportunities and Challenges for the Public Sector
ICEGOV '19: Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Theory and Practice of Electronic GovernanceArtificial Intelligence (AI) refers to a set of technologies through which "intelligent machines are gaining the ability to learn, improve and make calculated decisions in ways that enable them to perform tasks previously thought to rely solely on human ...
Too Bureaucratic to Flexibly Learn About AI? The Human-Centered Development of a MOOC on Artificial Intelligence in and for Public Administration
MuC '21: Proceedings of Mensch und Computer 2021The public sector holds enormous potential for the use of artificial intelligence, which is also recognized and supported by the government. To realize this potential, however, it is imperative that civil servants have the necessary knowledge to ...
Comments