skip to main content
research-article

Classification of Alzheimer's using Deep-learning Methods on Webcam-based Gaze Data

Published:18 May 2023Publication History
Skip Abstract Section

Abstract

There has been increasing interest in non-invasive predictors of Alzheimer's disease (AD) as an initial screen for this condition. Previously, successful attempts leveraged eye-tracking and language data generated during picture narration and reading tasks. These results were obtained with high-end, expensive eye-trackers. Instead, we explore classification using eye-tracking data collected with a webcam, where our classifiers are built using a deep-learning approach. Our results show that the webcam gaze classifier is not as good as the classifier based on high-end eye-tracking data. However, the webcam-based classifier still beats the majority-class baseline classifier in terms of AU-ROC, indicating that predictive signals can be extracted from webcam gaze tracking. Hence, although our results indicate that there is still a long way to go before webcam gaze tracking can reach practical relevance, they still provide an encouraging proof of concept that this technology should be further explored as an affordable alternative to high-end eye-trackers for the detection of AD.

Skip Supplemental Material Section

Supplemental Material

1061_Sriram_Presentation (2).mp4

mp4

201.4 MB

References

  1. Baltrusaitis, Tadas, Amir Zadeh, Yao Chong Lim, and Louis-Philippe Morency. 2018. "OpenFace 2.0: Facial Behavior Analysis Toolkit." Pp. 59--66 in 2018 13th IEEE International Conference on Automatic Face & Gesture Recognition (FG 2018).Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  2. Barnes, Deborah E., and Kristine Yaffe. 2011. "The Projected Effect of Risk Factor Reduction on Alzheimer's Disease Prevalence." The Lancet. Neurology 10(9):819--28. doi: 10.1016/S1474--4422(11)70072--2.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  3. Barral, Oswald, Hyeju Jang, Sally Newton-Mason, Sheetal Shajan, Thomas Soroski, Giuseppe Carenini, Cristina Conati, and Thalia Field. 2020. "Non-Invasive Classification of Alzheimer's Disease Using Eye Tracking and Language." Pp. 813--41 in Proceedings of the 5th Machine Learning for Healthcare Conference. PMLR.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  4. Biondi, Juan, Gerardo Fernandez, Silvia Castro, and Osvaldo Agamennoni. 2018. "Eye-Movement Behavior Identification for AD Diagnosis."Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  5. Bixler, Robert, and Sidney D'Mello. 2016. "Automatic Gaze-Based User-Independent Detection of Mind Wandering during Computerized Reading." User Modeling and User-Adapted Interaction 26(1):33--68. doi: 10.1007/s11257-015--9167--1.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  6. Boote, Bikram, Mansi Agarwal, and Jack Mostow. 2021. "Early Prediction of Children's Disengagement in a Tablet Tutor Using Visual Features." Pp. 98--103 in Artificial Intelligence in Education, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, edited by I. Roll, D. McNamara, S. Sosnovsky, R. Luckin, and V. Dimitrova. Cham: Springer International Publishing.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  7. Cho, Kyunghyun, Bart van Merrienboer, Dzmitry Bahdanau, and Yoshua Bengio. 2014. "On the Properties of Neural Machine Translation: Encoder-Decoder Approaches."Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  8. Chung, Junyoung, Caglar Gulcehre, KyungHyun Cho, and Yoshua Bengio. 2014. "Empirical Evaluation of Gated Recurrent Neural Networks on Sequence Modeling."Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  9. Cordell, Cyndy B., Soo Borson, Malaz Boustani, Joshua Chodosh, David Reuben, Joe Verghese, William Thies, and Leslie B. Fried. 2013. "Alzheimer's Association Recommendations for Operationalizing the Detection of Cognitive Impairment during the Medicare Annual Wellness Visit in a Primary Care Setting." Alzheimer's & Dementia 9(2):141--50. doi: 10.1016/j.jalz.2012.09.011.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  10. Cummings, Louise. 2019. "Describing the Cookie Theft Picture: Sources of Breakdown in Alzheimer's Dementia." Pragmatics and Society 10(2):153--76. doi: 10.1075/ps.17011.cum.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  11. D'Mello, Sidney K., Caitlin Mills, Robert Bixler, and Nigel Bosch. 2017. Zone out No More: Mitigating Mind Wandering during Computerized Reading. International Educational Data Mining Society.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  12. Fernández, Gerardo, Jochen Laubrock, Pablo Mandolesi, Oscar Colombo, and Osvaldo Agamennoni. 2014. "Registering Eye Movements during Reading in Alzheimer's Disease: Difficulties in Predicting Upcoming Words." Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 36(3):302--16. doi: 10.1080/13803395.2014.892060.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  13. Fraser, Kathleen C., Jed A. Meltzer, and Frank Rudzicz. 2016. "Linguistic Features Identify Alzheimer's Disease in Narrative Speech." Journal of Alzheimer's Disease 49(2):407--22. doi: 10.3233/JAD-150520.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  14. Futoma, Joseph, Sanjay Hariharan, Katherine Heller, Mark Sendak, Nathan Brajer, Meredith Clement, Armando Bedoya, and Cara O'Brien. 2017. "An Improved Multi-Output Gaussian Process RNN with Real-Time Validation for Early Sepsis Detection." Pp. 243--54 in Proceedings of the 2nd Machine Learning for Healthcare Conference. PMLR.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  15. Garbutt, Siobhan, Alisa Matlin, Joanna Hellmuth, Ana K. Schenk, Julene K. Johnson, Howard Rosen, David Dean, Joel Kramer, John Neuhaus, Bruce L. Miller, Stephen G. Lisberger, and Adam L. Boxer. 2008. "Oculomotor Function in Frontotemporal Lobar Degeneration, Related Disorders and Alzheimer's Disease." Brain 131(5):1268--81. doi: 10.1093/brain/awn047.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  16. Goodglass, Harold, and Edith Kaplan. 1972. The Assessment of Aphasia and Related Disorders. Lea & Febiger.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  17. Grnarova, Paulina, Florian Schmidt, Stephanie L. Hyland, and Carsten Eickhoff. 2016. "Neural Document Embeddings for Intensive Care Patient Mortality Prediction." doi: 10.48550/arXiv.1612.00467.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  18. Hutt, Stephen, and Sidney K. D'Mello. 2022. "Evaluating Calibration-Free Webcam-Based Eye Tracking for Gaze-Based User Modeling." Pp. 224--35 in Proceedings of the 2022 International Conference on Multimodal Interaction, ICMI '22. New York, NY, USA: Association for Computing Machinery.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  19. Jang, Hyeju, Thomas Soroski, Matteo Rizzo, Oswald Barral, Anuj Harisinghani, Sally Newton-Mason, Saffrin Granby, Thiago Monnerat Stutz da Cunha Vasco, Caitlin Lewis, and Pavan Tutt. 2021. "Classification of Alzheimer's Disease Leveraging Multi-Task Machine Learning Analysis of Speech and Eye-Movement Data." Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 512.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  20. Kar, Anuradha, and Peter Corcoran. 2017. "A Review and Analysis of Eye-Gaze Estimation Systems, Algorithms and Performance Evaluation Methods in Consumer Platforms." IEEE Access 5:16495--519. doi: 10.1109/ACCESS.2017.2735633.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  21. Karlekar, Sweta, Tong Niu, and Mohit Bansal. 2018. "Detecting Linguistic Characteristics of Alzheimer's Dementia by Interpreting Neural Models."Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  22. Kong, Weirui, Hyeju Jang, Giuseppe Carenini, and Thalia Field. 2019. "A Neural Model for Predicting Dementia from Language." Pp. 270--86 in Proceedings of the 4th Machine Learning for Healthcare Conference. PMLR.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  23. Krafka, Kyle, Aditya Khosla, Petr Kellnhofer, Harini Kannan, Suchendra Bhandarkar, Wojciech Matusik, and Antonio Torralba. 2016. "Eye Tracking for Everyone." Pp. 2176--84 in.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  24. Lallé, Sébastien, Cristina Conati, and Giuseppe Carenini. 2016. "Predicting Confusion in Information Visualization from Eye Tracking and Interaction Data." Pp. 2529--35 in IJCAI.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  25. Li, Shuai, Wanqing Li, Chris Cook, Ce Zhu, and Yanbo Gao. 2018. "Independently Recurrent Neural Network (Indrnn): Building a Longer and Deeper Rnn." Pp. 5457--66 in Proceedings of the IEEE conference on computer vision and pattern recognition.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  26. Lipton, Zachary C., David C. Kale, Charles Elkan, and Randall Wetzel. 2015. "Learning to Diagnose with LSTM Recurrent Neural Networks." doi: 10.48550/arXiv.1511.03677.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  27. MacAskill, Michael R., and Tim J. Anderson. 2016. "Eye Movements in Neurodegenerative Diseases." Current Opinion in Neurology 29(1):61--68. doi: 10.1097/WCO.0000000000000274.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  28. Molitor, Robert J., Philip C. Ko, and Brandon A. Ally. 2015. "Eye Movements in Alzheimer's Disease." Journal of Alzheimer's Disease": JAD 44(1):1--12. doi: 10.3233/JAD-141173.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  29. Müller, Philipp, Michael Xuelin Huang, Xucong Zhang, and Andreas Bulling. 2018. "Robust Eye Contact Detection in Natural Multi-Person Interactions Using Gaze and Speaking Behaviour." Pp. 1--10 in Proceedings of the 2018 ACM Symposium on Eye Tracking Research & Applications, ETRA '18. New York, NY, USA: Association for Computing Machinery.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  30. Nasreddine, Ziad S., Natalie A. Phillips, Valérie Bédirian, Simon Charbonneau, Victor Whitehead, Isabelle Collin, Jeffrey L. Cummings, and Howard Chertkow. 2005. "The Montreal Cognitive Assessment, MoCA: A Brief Screening Tool For Mild Cognitive Impairment." Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 53(4):695--99. doi: 10.1111/j.1532--5415.2005.53221.x.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  31. Pavisic, Ivanna M., Nicholas C. Firth, Samuel Parsons, David Martinez Rego, Timothy J. Shakespeare, Keir X. X. Yong, Catherine F. Slattery, Ross W. Paterson, Alexander J. M. Foulkes, Kirsty Macpherson, Amelia M. Carton, Daniel C. Alexander, John Shawe-Taylor, Nick C. Fox, Jonathan M. Schott, Sebastian J. Crutch, and Silvia Primativo. 2017. "Eyetracking Metrics in Young Onset Alzheimer's Disease: A Window into Cognitive Visual Functions." Frontiers in Neurology 8.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  32. Prince, Martin, Dr Renata Bryce, and Dr Cleusa Ferri. n.d. "World Alzheimer Report 2011: The Benefits of Early Diagnosis and Intervention."Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  33. Pusiol, Guido, Andre Esteva, Scott S. Hall, Michael Frank, Arnold Milstein, and Li Fei-Fei. 2016. "Vision-Based Classification of Developmental Disorders Using Eye-Movements." Pp. 317--25 in Medical Image Computing and Computer-Assisted Intervention -- MICCAI 2016, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, edited by S. Ourselin, L. Joskowicz, M. R. Sabuncu, G. Unal, and W. Wells. Cham: Springer International Publishing.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  34. Sims, Shane D., and Cristina Conati. 2020. "A Neural Architecture for Detecting User Confusion in Eye-Tracking Data." Pp. 15--23 in Proceedings of the 2020 International Conference on Multimodal Interaction, ICMI '20. New York, NY, USA: Association for Computing Machinery.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  35. Tay, Yi, Mostafa Dehghani, Dara Bahri, and Donald Metzler. 2022. "Efficient Transformers: A Survey." ACM Computing Surveys. doi: 10.1145/3530811.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  36. Tran, Minh, Taylan Sen, Kurtis Haut, Mohammad Rafayet Ali, and Ehsan Hoque. 2022. "Are You Really Looking at Me" A Feature-Extraction Framework for Estimating Interpersonal Eye Gaze From Conventional Video." IEEE Transactions on Affective Computing 13(2):912--25. doi: 10.1109/TAFFC.2020.2979440.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  37. Trauzettel-Klosinski, Susanne, Klaus Dietz, and the IReST Study Group. 2012. "Standardized Assessment of Reading Performance: The New International Reading Speed Texts IReST." Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science 53(9):5452--61. doi: 10.1167/iovs.11--8284.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  38. Tripathi, Subarna, Zachary C. Lipton, Serge Belongie, and Truong Nguyen. 2016. "Context Matters: Refining Object Detection in Video with Recurrent Neural Networks." doi: 10.48550/arXiv.1607.04648.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  39. Valliappan, Nachiappan, Na Dai, Ethan Steinberg, Junfeng He, Kantwon Rogers, Venky Ramachandran, Pingmei Xu, Mina Shojaeizadeh, Li Guo, Kai Kohlhoff, and Vidhya Navalpakkam. 2020. "Accelerating Eye Movement Research via Accurate and Affordable Smartphone Eye Tracking." Nature Communications 11(1):4553. doi: 10.1038/s41467-020--18360--5.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  40. Yue-Hei Ng, Joe, Matthew Hausknecht, Sudheendra Vijayanarasimhan, Oriol Vinyals, Rajat Monga, and George Toderici. 2015. "Beyond Short Snippets: Deep Networks for Video Classification." Pp. 4694--4702 in.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  41. Zhang, Xucong, Yusuke Sugano, and Andreas Bulling. 2017. "Everyday Eye Contact Detection Using Unsupervised Gaze Target Discovery." Pp. 193--203 in Proceedings of the 30th annual ACM symposium on user interface software and technology.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar

Index Terms

  1. Classification of Alzheimer's using Deep-learning Methods on Webcam-based Gaze Data

      Recommendations

      Comments

      Login options

      Check if you have access through your login credentials or your institution to get full access on this article.

      Sign in

      Full Access

      • Published in

        cover image Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction
        Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction  Volume 7, Issue ETRA
        ETRA
        May 2023
        234 pages
        EISSN:2573-0142
        DOI:10.1145/3597645
        Issue’s Table of Contents

        Copyright © 2023 ACM

        Permission to make digital or hard copies of all or part of this work for personal or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full citation on the first page. Copyrights for components of this work owned by others than the author(s) must be honored. Abstracting with credit is permitted. To copy otherwise, or republish, to post on servers or to redistribute to lists, requires prior specific permission and/or a fee. Request permissions from [email protected].

        Publisher

        Association for Computing Machinery

        New York, NY, United States

        Publication History

        • Published: 18 May 2023
        Published in pacmhci Volume 7, Issue ETRA

        Permissions

        Request permissions about this article.

        Request Permissions

        Check for updates

        Qualifiers

        • research-article
      • Article Metrics

        • Downloads (Last 12 months)312
        • Downloads (Last 6 weeks)41

        Other Metrics

      PDF Format

      View or Download as a PDF file.

      PDF

      eReader

      View online with eReader.

      eReader